...A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY (STANDARD) LANGUAGE ( From: I.R.Galperin. Stylistics. Moscow: Higher School, 1977. pp. 41-57) Up till now we have done little more than mention the literary (standard) language, which is one of the most important notions in stylistics and general linguistics. It is now necessary to elucidate this linguistic notion by going a little deeper into what constitutes the concept and to trace the stages in the development of the English standard language. This is necessary in order to avoid occasional confusion of terms differently used in works on the history, literature and style of the English language. Confusion between the terms "literary language" and "language of literature" is frequently to be met. Literary language is a historical category. It exists as a variety of the national language.' "It must be remembered," said A. M. Gorki, "that language is the creation of the people. The division of the language into literary and vernacular only means that there are, as it were, a rough unpolished tongue and one wrought by men-of-letters."1 The literary language is that elaborated form (variety) of the national language which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical, phraseological and stylistic norms2 recognized as standard and therefore acceptable in all kinds and types of discourse. It allows modifications but within the frame work of the system of established norms. It casts out some...
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...[pic] “Did the development of a middle-class ‘public sphere’ significantly alter artistic practice during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries?” In The Structural transformation of the Public Sphere[1], Jürgen Habermas describes how this area in social life, both separated from the “private sphere” and the “sphere of public authority”, where people can get together and freely discuss and identify societal problems and trough that even influence political action, has not always existed. Its creation was part of a long process that had its peak at the turn of the eighteenth century. He also explains how, although this phenomenon concerns the whole of the European society, the British case stands out. The genesis of the public sphere is first of all associated to an economical factor. As a result from the modernization of the economy, based upon a systematic use of public credit and the free circulation of goods and capital, it is especially the city of London that expanded at a remarkable speed with the sudden and fast development of merchant banking and insurance, as well as warehousing and trading. This new horizon of possibilities on terms of wealth and independence unfolds simultaneously to important shifts in the political arena. After years of blood spill trough civil war, which ended with the execution of King Charles I, a constitutional monarchy was finally established. The idea of a freer, more horizontal conception of social relations started...
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...1.The Change from English to American When the American Revolution started in 1775, around two and a half million people lived in the thirteen colonies. The vast majority had emigrated from England or were descendants of English settlers. Most called themselves English and still felt a strong bondwith the customs and traditions of their faraway homeland. When war erupted, this connection was put to the test. Many saw the colonists’ reasoning behind their revolt but could not bring themselves to lift a hand against mother England; therefore, they tried to remain neutral. Others were so fiercely devoted to England that they instead formed loyalist groups that aided the English military forces. 2 Before the revolution, there was one major difference between an Englishman in England and one in America. Men with property in England had the right to vote for representatives in Parliament. Their grievances were heard, and they had the power to effect changes. This was not so in America as the American colonies lacked representatives in Parliament. The colonists had their own legislatures as well as some measure of autonomy, but even this power was subject both to British law and the rule of a local British governor. Thus men who considered themselves Englishmen in America were treated as American colonists by their counterparts in England. Many American colonists were of the opinion that they possessed rights beyond what their supposed rulers in England were willing to grant them...
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...Drew S**** Professor X ENGL 1 April 2013 Wilderness The meaning of wilderness has changed over time, and today there is a debate surrounding the meaning of wilderness. William Cronon says in “The Trouble with Wilderness”, “As late as the eighteenth century, the most common usage of the word ‘wilderness’ in the English language referred to landscapes that generally carried adjectives far different from the ones they attract today. To be a wilderness then was to be ‘deserted,’ ‘savage,’ ‘desolate,’ ‘barren’—in short, a ‘waste,’ the word’s nearest synonym” (Cronon 165). To most people today wilderness is a place untouched by humans and home to nature and the sublime. William Cronon claims that we should view wilderness as part of us and everything around us. The wilderness is a place unaltered by humans, these places are disappearing and we need to protect them. William Cronon’s “The Trouble with Wilderness” presents an interesting view on what wilderness is. His view is completely different from both the old definition and the current definition. He says, “It is not the things we label as wilderness that are the problem, but rather what we ourselves mean when we use the label” (Cronon 174). Cronon doesn’t believe that the things we currently define as wilderness shouldn’t be called wilderness, but he believes that there is a problem with only recognizing certain places to be wilderness. In his essay Cronon says, “If wild nature is the only thing worth saving, and if our...
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...When Culture (Latin: cultura, lit. "cultivation") first began to take its current usage by Europeans in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century (having had earlier antecedents elsewhere), it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history". In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. A distinction is current between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture and everything else, the intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the...
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...Part C Section Two: Structure and Written Expression 1. The role of the ear is acoustic disturbances into neural signals suitable for transmission to the brain. A) to code B) so that coded (C) coded (D) it coding 2. The imagist movement in poetry arose during the second decade of the twentieth century against romanticism, A) when a revolt B) as a revolt C) a revolt was D) that a revolt 3. Virtually species have biological clocks that regulate their metabolism over a 24-hour period. A) all there are B) all C) all are D) they all 4. According to United States criminal law, insanity may relieve a person from the usual legal consequences A) what his or her acts have B) of his or her acts are C) of his or her acts D) what of his or her acts 5. In addition to a place where business deals are made, a stock exchange collects statistics, publishes price quotations, and sets rules and standards for trading. A) being B) it is C) that which D) where is 6. The first inhabitants of the territories Canada came across the Bering Strait and along the edge of the Arctic ice. A) make up that now B) make up now that (C) that make up now (D) that now make up 7. need for new schools following the Second World War that provided the sustained thrust for the architectural program in Columbus, Indiana. A) Since the B) To be the C) The D) It was the 8. The soybean contains vitamins, essential minerals...
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...English Essay made of several essays cobbled together from plagiarized sources When analyzing different novels, you must learn to read between the lines and look for the deeper meaning. For instance, the famous saying “The grass is always greener on the other side” can be taken many different ways. If you read the statement literally, it tells you about the color of the grass and that it is on the other side. If you review the statement closely and think about the meaning behind it, you can see that it is relating to the feeling of when people get jealous of other people’s lives. The greener grass symbolizes the other person’s better, richer life. August Wilson’s play Fences provides numerous opportunities for the reader to read between the lines and find the deeper meaning of the themes in the play. I am going to discuss how the themes of the fence and the “sins of the father” carry meaning and are related to the characters Rose, Cory, Lyons and Troy. In Incidents of the Life of a Slave Girl Linda Brent is born into slavery. As a slave, then a fugitive slave and a mother, she has many fears. Linda lives each day worrying about her safety and the safety of her family. Starting from a young child, Linda was a slave she dealt with the hardship that comes with having an owner, a mistress, and having to watch her kids go through the same things. As Harriet Jacobs describes in depth in this book, slavery is hard and horrible for both men and woman, but in most cases is a lot...
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...THE FABLE - HISTORY In this section we shortly go through the history of fable, from its origins to our days. The folk tale is the expression of that fanciful heritage spontaneously created in any kind of culture, for the man's innate needs. At first it was handed down by word of mouth, then it was collected by enthusiasts and scholars, and in the end, it was revised by the individual inspiration of story-tellers and fabulists, who added some elements of personal invention. The exigency of fancy often joins the reality of the environment where the fable was born: so, together with certain natural elements common to the folk creative power (contrast between the good and the bad, the sly and the fool, the tyrant and the victim; a happy ending at the conclusion of a succession of more or less intricate adventures), it is not difficult to find in the types, in the names used, in the outlined customs, the characteristics which mark its country of origin. The fable (in the Greek language “muzos”, which you can also literally translate with “myth”) has its own evolution in the time, according to the development of the people expressing it. Some famous collections belong to the oriental traditions, which, in that way, handed down warnings rich in ancient wisdom or adventures rich in extraordinary fact, tricks and unexpected events. Other collections, the Greek and Roman ones, show religious elements (the origin of the world or cosmology, the stories of gods, heroes and men), where...
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...understand the following sentence “This car is very powerful” they all say they do. Their comprehension is based on two elements. One is their knowledge of the words and grammar of the English language. But this is not enough. In different contexts and in different situations the word “powerful” may mean different things: “ a powerful car “ in the advertisement is not the same as “ a powerful method” for solving a problem , or “a powerful man” in felling trees, though the three “powerfuls” do not have smth in common. Similarly, the word “car” can mean not only an automobile , but also according to Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language it means “ a streetcar; an elevator cage; a part of the balloon which carries people and equipment” . “Understanding” the above sentence means that those hearing or reading it can imagine automobile, probably big, that can run very fast. This is where the second element of comprehension comes in: besides knowledge of the language comprehension implies knowledge of the outside world, called extralinguistic knowledge or encyclopedic knowledge or background knowledge. Comprehension varies from non-comprehension to full comprehension. Total non-comprehension of verbal statements is extremely rare, since the situation and/or content almost always say smth about its meaning. The problem of full comprehension is rather more difficult to deal with. The subjective feeling of comprehension that arise in the reader’s or listener’s...
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...flap, ball change, time-step. Choreographers also know how to express ideas and tell stories. Sometimes they wing what they are going to teach or they plan the material. The teaching of the choreography in a routine usually takes place in a studio. Dancers and choreographers work in many industries such as private educational services which includes schools as well as colleges and universities and even dance studios. (“Top”) Employment of choreographers is projected to grow 6% from 2012-2022. Bureau Labor of Statics stated that professional dancers and choreographers held almost 40,000 jobs in 2006. Many others were between engagements, which meant that the total number of people available for work as a dancer over the course of the year was much greater. About 17% of dancers and choreographers were self-employed. Bigger communities serve as home to major dance companies; however, many smaller cities across the nation also support home grown, professional dance companies. There is a competition for dancers and choreographers when finding a job. The most talented are usually the ones to find regular employment. The public’s interest will sustain large and midsize dance companies, but public and private organization funding is expected not to keep pace with rising production cost. With this being said, smaller organizations will have fewer performances or be more limited in employment opportunities. Choreography is the art of arranging and creating dances. The word derives from...
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...organizers at Notre Dame for having invited me and indeed for having invited all of us. It occurs to me that we in the academic world like to talk about the importance of interdisciplinary discussions, about the need for cross-fertilization, and the like, but in my experience that is too often, regrettably, more talk than reality. So chapeau, as the French say, to Notre Dame for hosting this event around a subject that so clearly demands multiple perspectives. I’ve noted that this first panel modestly poses the question “What is happiness?,” and modestly let me say that I am singularly unfit to answer it, in large part because of my training as a historian, which makes me, I fear, unduly attentive to the way in which words and concepts change their meanings over time. To be perfectly frank, I’m partial to Immanuel Kant’s observation that “the concept of happiness is such an indeterminate one that even though everyone wishes to attain happiness, yet he can never say definitely and consistently what it is what he really wishes and wills.” But clearly that is not really going to be good enough here tonight. So how to answer the question “what is happiness.” I might point out, as I do, in my book the strong and stubborn etymological link between happiness and luck in every IndoEuropean language. The old Norse and Old English root “hap,” like the old French heur or the Mittelhockdeutsch “Gluck,” simply means luck or fortune. We have mis-haps 2 when bad things happen...
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...all of the great of ordinary women. The word "representative" is closest in meaning to which of following? (A) typical (B) satisfied (C) supportive (D) distinctive 006. A flood of ice would then surge into the Southern Sea. With the continued rise in sea level, more ice would plunge into the ocean, causing sea levels to rise even higher, which in turn would release more ice and set in motion a vicious cycle. The word "plunge" is closest in meaning to which of following? (A) drop (B) extend (C) melt (D) drift 007. Group members look to instrumental leaders to "get things done." Expressive leadership, on the other hand, is leadership that emphasizes the collective well-being of a social group's members. The word "collective" is closest in meaning to which of following? (A) necessary (B) typical (C) group (D) particular 020. There are numerous unsubstantiated reports that natural vitamins are superior to synthetic ones, that fertilized eggs are nutritionally superior to unfertilized eggs, that untreated grains are better than fumigated grains, and the like. The word "unsubstantiated" is closest in meaning to which of following? (A) unbelievable (B) uncontested (C) unpopular (D) unverified 022. In addition, there were performers and since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task. The word "considerable" is closest in meaning to which of following? (A) thoughtful ...
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... Biological Foundations The study of psychology emerged in the eighteenth century. Many psychologists, from the past and present have made arguments over the correct meaning of the word ‘psychology. One thing is certain, and that is they agree to disagree. The term psychology derives from the Greek words psyche meaning ‘mind’, and logos meaning ‘reason’. Therefore, the true meaning of psychology is reasoning of the mind. Biological psychology is the branch of science that attempts to explain behavior in terms of biology. This is basically the study of the brain and how it causes or relates to behavior (Wickens 2005). The first people to realize that the brain was an organ of the mind were the Ancient Greeks. Plato (429-348 BC) said that the brain was the organ of reasoning. Aristotle believed that the heart served this particular function and the brain was there only to cool the blood. Galen believed that the heart was the crucial organ of the body, because it contained the vital spirit that gave the spark of life to the person (Wickens, 2005). These are just a few of the grates in history that contributed their thoughts on the human mind. Comparative Psychology focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology wants to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age (Wayne, 2007). This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural...
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...Warning Concerning Copyright Restrictions The Copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyright material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction not be "used for any purposes other than private study, scholarship, or research." If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. CHAPTER ONE Once There was a Time An Introduction to the History and Ideology of Folk'and Fairy Tales To begin with a true story told in fairy-tale manner: Once upon a time the famous physicist Albert Einstein was confronted by an overly concemed woman who sought advice on how to raise her small son to become a successful scientist. In particular she wanted to know what kinds ofbooks she sll ould read to her son. "Fairy tales," Einstein responded without. hesitation. "Fine, but what else should I read to him after that?" the mother asked. "More fairy tales, "Einstein stated. "And after that?" "Even more fairy tales. " replied the great scientist, and he waved his pipe like a wizard pronouncing a happy end to a long adventure. It now seems that the entire world has been following Einstein's advice. By 1979 a German literary critic could...
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...philosophy had been dated back centuries before. Since then it’s meaning has evolved into different branches from radical feminism to liberal feminism for example, and is used on a political platform. It is fact that both Mary Wollstonecraft and Hannah More are examples of women who philosophised about women’s rights and their place in society. They both produced published works discussing women in society focused upon educational reform, and many have debated the extent to which they should be considered feminists. However, although their views contradicted each other, based on the modern day definition of feminism, both Wollstonecraft and More should be considered feminists for numerous reasons. Firstly, it is indisputable that Mary Wollstonecraft was a feminist and even as far to be considered as the “founder of western feminism”. In Wollstonecraft’s writings, a new female value is consciously introduced and effectively infused into a movement across the late eighteenth century. There are many books that focus on Wollstonecraft’s thought alone as they all depict the influences and meanings of feminism to Wollstonecraft. They all commonly convey significance, individuality and authenticity, as well as emphasising the need to display itself for the attentions of others in trying to establish a movement. Battling against male superiority all her life, Wollstonecraft’s views become more defiant in her later life and at the end of the eighteenth century. The...
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