Throughout history there have been numerous counts of individuals who have seemingly sprung from nowhere and ravaged prosperous empires. Attila the Hun is no different. To most people, he is merely known as a mindless barbarian. Nothing about the man himself, his world, or his significance is ever discussed, which detracts from the influential person that he was. There was so much more to him than mere barbarism. Attila’s power derived from his astonishing character. He was brutal and arrogant, but also was able to gain the support of millions with his brilliance. The Huns thought him semi divine, Goths and other barbarians adored him, and educated Westerners were proud to serve him. Not only was he a powerful leader, but also a canny politician. With his vast array of qualities, Attila played a significant role in Europe during his lifetime and very nearly altered the course of its future. By becoming such a prominent figure in such a short period of time, it is a disgrace to his legacy that people do not know more about Attila the Hun other than the fact that he was a savage. This portrayal of him in itself does not do him justice because he truly was so much more. The story of Attila begins in Mongolia, which has been the progenitor of great and violent leaders. Though his origins are in question, with a certain amount of empirical evidence it has been popularly concluded that Attila belonged to a group of Mongolian or Turkic nomadic tribes from northeastern China and Mongolia.1 Attila himself was born in 406 to Mundzuk. The name Attila, given to him by his father, signifies iron in the Hunnic language, and this foresees the great future that he had in store.2 His lineage can be traced along the lines of an ancient imperial family, which had once ruled over the whole powerful nation of the Huns.3 So from the start it was clear that Attila was destined for great things. In 434, Rua died and left Mundzuk’s two sons, Attila and Bleda to dually rule the Hun Tribes. At the time of two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II's envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge within the Eastern Roman Empire.4 The following year Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty. The Romans agreed to not only return the fugitives, but to also double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the Hungarian Great Plain to consolidate and strengthen their empire.5 From the very beginning of Attila’s rule, it was obvious that he was going to be an excellent ruler. Even with the inherited issues with Theodosius II, he was able to prove himself. Attila was able to successfully accomplish what Rua was not able to do, and that was to regain the captured fugitives. If that were not enough, he was able to bargain the Roman Emperor to give the Huns a much higher tribute than originally agreed upon. The start of his rule being with his brother may attribute to some of his original success. He was able to confide in Bleda and learned much about ruling because his brother was significantly older than he was. Being able to successfully work together shows that Attila not only had the potential to become a great ruler, but also to work with others.
Attila and the Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the Sassanid Empire. When defeated in Armenia by the Sassanids, the Huns abandoned their invasion and turned their attentions back to Europe.6 This is a true testament of Attila’s militaristic intelligence because he knew when it was time to move on. He had attempted to gain control over Armenia, but when it failed, he did not press on. This was a wise decision on his part because there was no need to continue fighting in this region. He could have continued and possibly won in the end, but it would not have been worth the countless men for such a small reason. Instead, he decided to refocus his concentration and begin his march into the Roman Empire. In 440, they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, and looted the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty in 434. Crossing the Danube, they pillaged the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river.7 This effort was in an attempt to capture the Bishop of Margus because he had sent troops across the river to plunder royal tombs.
“The bishop, terrified that he would be handed over by his own people to ensure their safety, slipped out of the city, crossed the Danube, and told the Huns that he would arrange for the gates of his town to be opened for them if they promised to treat him well.”8
This showcased the power that Attila and his brother Bleda had already gained. However, it shows much more than that. Yes, they had frightened the bishop on account of their brutal tactics, but it also showed their intelligence. In order to spread fear, they pillaged, but they did not do this simply for the sake of pillaging. It was apparent to them that by doing so, they would frighten not only the bishop, but the people of Margus as well. With this, they would have leverage to gain the bishop from the people. After their meeting, “the Huns gathered by night on the far bank of the Danube, while somehow the bishop persuaded those on watch to open the gates.”9 Hidden in the darkness were the Huns and as soon as the gates were opened they attacked. They stormed into the unsuspecting city and burnt it to the ground never to be rebuilt. This led way to the Treaty of Margus, which promised to pay the Huns a tribute in order to keep peace.10 After this attack and the treaty, the banks of the Danube remained quiet as Attila held firm control of the region. Tranquility and peace were brought to the land up until 443. At this time, Attila sent diplomatic letters to the imperial Roman court because there had been accounts of asylum seekers crossing the Danube. Attila wanted these men to be handed over. He also demanded the back payment of the 700 pounds of gold a year that had been agreed upon in the treaty of Margus in 440. Prior to these letters, only one installment had been received, but Attila was in no rush to receive his payments.11 He knew that in time it would be paid off and there was no reason to make unnecessary conflict. Attila understood that it was better to wait and bring about the matter when some other issue arose. This would give a greater cause to fight if were a necessity. Simply fighting over a tribute such as this would cause unwarranted deaths on both parties and not much would have been resolved. After Theodosius received the letters, he refused to hand over either the money or the refugees. He proposed instead to send ambassadors and begin talks on these disputed issues. Attila rejected this suggestion of negotiation.12 He knew what he was entitled to and was not willing to compromise his rights as a ruler. The Huns responded by taking Roman forts along the frontier, including Ratiaria, the headquarters of the Danube fleet. This was a damaging attack that no one in the Roman Empire had expected. They were able to accomplish this so effectively because they were equipped with new military weapons such as battering rams and rolling siege towers.13 Advancing along the Nisava River, the Huns next took Serdica, Philippopolis, and Arcadiopolis. Attila’s campaign had succeeded and he decided against going for Constantinople. His assault on the Roman Empire had been to successful to risk attacking the best-defended city in the Mediterranean World.14 Also, the outbreak of disease in the capital and its surroundings added to Attila’s unwillingness to attempt what was certain to be a long siege. He recognized the problem of provisioning a stationary army in a region already ruined by invasion.15
Having already taken over every region on the path to Constantinople, Attila demanded that a treaty be reached. This would not only satisfy Attila’s longing for repayment, but it would also keep him from having to attack Constantinople. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi.16 This achievement shows how Attila was a master negotiator. Not only did he defeat his enemies with his military prowess, but also he was able to force them into surrendering to terms that were far beyond they were originally fighting over. In the midst of this campaign, Attila killed Bleda so that he became sole ruler of the Huns. At the time of his accession Attila was already in middle age.17 This allowed Attila to become all-powerful in commanding his troops and gave him the opportunity to show what he could truly do as a leader. Shortly after the new treaty, the Romans plotted to kill Attila by bribing one of his Lieutenants to murder him at a dinner. The attempt failed from the very start so Attila never gained knowledge of the plot against him.18 At the dinner, a detailed account by Priscus was documented which gives us insight into Attila’s character.
“A sumptuous meal had been prepared on silver plates for us and Attila’s barbarian guests. Attila himself ate meat from a wooden platter, and was equally restrained in other ways. While the guests drank from gold and silver goblets, his cup was of wood. His dress too was simple and clean. The sword at his side, and the bindings of his Scythian shoes…were without ornament.”19
This shows that Attila did not give into to lavish commodities that came with being a ruler. He was content with simple things and that is what made him who he was. Some say that this makes him a barbarian for not wanting to conform to the culture of the time. However, more accurately it shows that he was his own man. He did not need extravagant possessions to show his power and wealth. Instead he did that with his force on the battlefield. He still did accommodate his guests with eloquent silverware to show that he did have class and that he wanted everyone to be pleased with the meal. In 450, Attila’s southern frontier along the Danube was at peace. His advance across the Danube and the disputes over prisoners and fugitives had given him the money and security he needed to raise him from robber baron to empire-builder. However, he knew he could not trust Constantinople to honor their commitments so he would soon have to take action against them to keep his control. In the current state, Rome was too powerful to take head-on, so Attila looked north to Gaul.20 At the same time, the Visigoths were running rampant in Gaul and Attila wanted to find a way to take Gaul diplomatically, which would in turn threaten Rome. Attila played the role of a diplomat and tried to rationalize with the Romans by saying that since the Visigoths were the enemies of Rome, he would be acting as a guardian of the Romans’ friendship. Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse, making an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III.21 He had previously been on good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Aëtius. Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433, and the troops Attila provided against the Goths and Bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west.22 However, Valentinian's sister was Honoria, who, in order to escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator, had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian heard of this, he wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.23
On April 7, he captured Metz and attacked various other cities along the way. Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Celts. A mission by Avitus, and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached Orleans ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. The two armies clashed in the Battle of Chalons, whose outcome is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric I was killed in the fighting and Aëtius failed to press his advantage because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat.24
Attila retreated, but he did not do so willing. The only thing that made him do so was the fact that he knew he did not stand a chance. With this in mind, he and the Huns went back and kept quiet for some time. Then, Attila returned in 452 to reclaim his marriage to Honoria.25 Along the way, he invaded and ravaged Italy. The city of Venice was founded as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. His army sacked numerous cities and razed Aquileia completely, leaving no trace of it behind.26 Aëtius, who lacked the strength to offer battle, was able to slow Attila's advance with small forces that clearly were not prepared for Attila’s army. Attilla finally stopped at the River Po because by this point, disease and starvation had broken out in Attila's camp. This was the primary reason his advances were halted. Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, which included Pope Leo I, to try and negotiate peace. They met Attila at Mincio, and obtained his promise to withdraw from Italy.27 Attila’s withdrawal from Italy should not be regarded as a failure. To advance on Rome would have required supplies that were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation.28 Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat back to his homeland. The Huns returned to the Great Hungarian Plains with their wagons piled high with plunder. To Attila, this was more important then simply battling for land. So instead, Attila took the bargain and returned with a multitude of riches for his people.
After Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube, he planned to strike Constantinople again, and reclaim the tribute that Marcian, the successor of Theodosius, had stopped. He never got the opportunity though because he died on the night of his wedding night in 453. On the day of his death he took a new, young, beautiful bride named Ildico. The wedding day was spent in heavy drinking and partying, and the King of the Huns took his new bride to bed that night in drunken lust. In his wedding chambers at the end of the event, Attila passed out flat on his back. It was then that Attila had a massive nosebleed. The most recognized theory of his death is that he choked on his blood. The next morning, the new bride was found quivering in fear in the great man's bed quarters.29 The Empire of the Huns dissipated nearly as quickly as its most famous leader.
After Attila's death, his three sons divided up the empire and fought over which would be the high king. The eldest brother Ellac prevailed, but meanwhile the Huns' subject tribes broke free from the empire one by one. Only a year after Attila's death, the Goths defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao, driving them out of Pannonia. Ellac was killed in battle, and Attila's second son Dengizich became the high king. Dengizich was determined to return the Hunnic Empire to the glory days during Attila’s rule.30 In 469, he sent a demand to Constantinople that the Eastern Roman Empire pay tribute to the Huns again. His younger brother Ernakh refused to get involved in this venture, and took his people out of Dengizich's alliance. The Romans refused Dengizich's demand so he attacked, and his army was crushed by Byzantine troops under General Anagestes. Dengizik was killed, along with the majority of his people. The remnants of Dengizich's clan joined Ernakh's people, and were absorbed by the Bulgars.31 Just 16 years after Attila's death, the Huns ceased to exist.
The will of one man had drawn together the incongruous elements of the Hunnic Empire. His ambition had kept them under his fist, a fist shaken at Rome, Constantinople, and China. All these races, hostile to one another by nature, had been flung into a melting pot by his will. Repeatedly, events had shown Attila how factitious this union was. His vast empire, stretching from the Great Wall of China to the Danube was built solely due to the personality of their leader. Attila never sought to impose upon them the customs of his people; he respected their laws and often was content with a simple oath of allegiance. This was the foundation that kept his empire together. This political edifice was extremely fragile, but did not seem so during the lifetime of its creator. The moment he died, all was plunged back into chaos. There is no other man besides Attila the Hun that could have successfully accomplished such a feat. It is a true testament to his character that he was able to achieve what he did in the short time that he was in rule, and if it was not for his untimely death, there is no limit to what his rule may have produced.