...History of Computer Introduction Man’s progress is measured by sophistication of his tools. First, he discovered how to control fire. Eventually, he invented the wheel. He built boats and earned to harness the wind. As soon as commerce developed in the early societies, people recognized the need to calculate and keep track of information. They soon devised simple computing devices and bookkeeping systems to enable them to add, subtract, and simple record transactions. Today, we are witnessing rapid technological changes taking place on a broad and scale. However, many centuries elapsed before technology was sufficiently advanced to develop computers. Without computers, man with technological achievements of the past decade would not have been possible. ANCIENT TIMES Shells, chicken, bones, or any number of objects would have been used but the fact that the word calculate is derived for “calculate”. The Latin word for small stone, suggests that pebbles or heads were arranged to form the famous abacus, the first man-made computing device. Early man also invented numbering systems to enable him to compute with ease for sums greater than 10. Decimal numbering system (Hindu-Arabic influence) uses specific digits representing from 0-9. 1600-1900 Blaise Pascal (French Mathematician) invented an adding machine in 1642. The machine adopted partly the principles of the abacus but did away with the use of the hand to move the beads of counters instead, Pascal used wheels. Pascal’s...
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...associated with IT Network and growth of Internet The role of IT in system development stages. Erican College – IT App. – Session 01 – 21 Jan 2014 – By: Hosseinpour ASSESSMENT • Assignment 30% • Class participation 10% • Examinations 60% Erican College – IT App. – Session 01 – 21 Jan 2014 – By: Hosseinpour Information Technology Application – IT App. Part I: Computer Hardware Part II: Computer Software Part III: Basic Concepts of Network Part IV: IT and Organization Erican College – IT App. – Session 01 – 21 Jan 2014 – By: Hosseinpour Outline of the Course • Fundamentals of Information Technology (IT) • Fundamentals of Computer Hardware – – – – CPU Peripherals Input / Output Memory • • • • • • • • • • Computer Software The Number System Basic Assembly Coding Programming Languages (Overview) Understanding Operating System Networking Fundamentals Internet (Intranet-LAN-WAN-MAN) Information Technology in Organizations System Development Future Computing Erican College – IT App. – Session 01 – 21 Jan 2014 – By: Hosseinpour Fundamentals of IT Fundamentals of IT is the first unit in the IT program. It introduces students the impact of computers on society, on our personal and professional lives, and on the environment. Fundamentals also discusses careers in IT,...
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... all ordinary arithmetic operations can be performed. The next innovation in computers took place in 1694 when Blaise Pascal invented the first "digital calculating machine". It could only add numbers and they had to be entered by turning dials. It was designed to help Pascal's father who was a tax collector. In the early 1800's, a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine. It was steam powered and could store up to 1,000 50-digit numbers. Built into his machine were operations that included everything a modern computer would need. It was programmed by, and stored data on, cards with holes punched in them, appropriately called "punch cards". But his inventions became failures because of the lack of precision machining techniques used at the time and the lack of demand for such a device. By the late 1930s punched-card machine techniques had become so well established and reliable that Howard Hathaway Aiken, in collaboration with engineers at IBM, undertook construction of a large automatic digital computer based on standard IBM electromechanical parts. Aiken's machine, called the Harvard Mark I, handled 23-digit numbers and could perform all four arithmetic operations. The Mark I was controlled from pre-punched paper tape. The outbreak of World War II produced a desperate need for computing capability, especially for the military. In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchley, and their associates at the University of Pennsylvania decided...
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...M.E.S. College, Marampally 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS The first electronic computer was designed and built at the University of Pennsylvania based on vacuum tube technology. Vacuum tubes were used to perform logic operations and to store data. Generations of computers has been divided into five according to the development of technologies used to fabricate the processors, memories and I/O units. I Generation II Generation III Generation IV Generation V Generation : 1945 – 55 : 1955 – 65 : 1965 – 75 : 1975 – 89 : 1989 to present First Generation (ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer IBM 701) Vacuum tubes were used – basic arithmetic operations took few milliseconds Bulky Consume more power with limited performance High cost Uses assembly language – to prepare programs. These were translated into machine level language for execution. Mercury delay line memories and Electrostatic memories were used Fixed point arithmetic was used 100 to 1000 fold increase in speed relative to the earlier mechanical and relay based electromechanical technology Punched cards and paper tape were invented to feed programs and data and to get results. Magnetic tape / magnetic drum were used as secondary memory Mainly used for scientific computations. Second Generation (Manufacturers – IBM 7030, Digital Data Corporation’s...
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...On the third generation computers, included the development of an operating system, which allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that coordinated the computer’s memory. By the fourth generation in 1971, the only objective was to reduce the size. In 1980 large scale integration squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip; this also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. AS computers became more widespread in the workplace, their potential was more developed. Small computers became more powerful that they could be linked together, share memory space, software and information. After many inventions and developments, computer programs of modern computers on which distinguishes them from all other machines and a global web of computer circuitry were created. In 1981 personal computer was introduce for use in the home, office and schools. The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million personal computers were being used. In the recent years, computers continue their trend towards working in smaller size computers, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers to palmtop. As computers became more widespread, smaller computers became more powerful. As opposed to a mainframe computer, this was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers...
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...classified into three generations. Each generation lasted for a certain period of time,and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the existing computer. First generation: 1937 – 1946 - In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform single task, and they had no operating system. Second generation: 1947 – 1962 - This generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series computers made their mark in the computer world. During this generation of computers over 100 computer programming languages were developed, computers had memory and operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in use also were printers for output. Third generation: 1963 - present...
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...calculated? (Review) How is the taxation multiplier calculated? Why is it lower than the government purchases multiplier? How is the transfers multiplier calculated? 2. Given some gaps and marginal propensities to consume, calculate how much government purchases, taxes, or transfers should be changed. 3. Explain why an equal increase (decrease) in government purchases and net taxes (taxes minus transfers) has an expansionary (contractionary) effect. 4. What is the balanced budget multiplier? 5. Explain why discretionary fiscal policy has not been very effective in reducing recessions in the United States. 6. What are the “time lags”? 7. What is meant by "automatic stabilization"? What are the main automatic stabilizers? 8. What is meant by "official budget deficit"? by "structural deficit"? Why is the structural budget deficit a better measure of the intent of fiscal policy? 9. What does it mean that "fiscal policy is expansionary (or contractionary)"? How does one determine whether fiscal policy is expansionary or contractionary? 10. In what ways might budget deficits be bad for an economy? In what ways might they be good for an economy? 11. What is meant by “crowding-out”? 12. Explain the relation between the budget deficits and the trade deficits. 13. What is meant by the "national debt"? What is the difference between "budget deficit" and "national debt"? What is...
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...electronic device that performs mathematical and non-mathematical operations with the help of instructions to process the data to achieve desired results. Although the application domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination, it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government, medicine, scientific research, law and even music and arts. This chapter provides a detailed description of evolution, generations and characteristics of computers along with their classification and applications. CHAPTER 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS Man developed computers so that it could perform intricate operations such as calculation and data processing or entertain him. Today, computers are everywhere—in our offices, homes, appliances and automobiles—the list is endless. Much of the world's infrastructure runs on computers, and the computers have profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let us discuss some of the characteristics of a computer, which make it an essential part of every emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development. * Speed: The computers...
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...MP RAPDRP (Part-A) Index: Topic What is RAPDRP ? RAPDRP Roles Modules of RAPDRP Key Field Activities Web Self Service Meter Data Acquisition System Energy Audit GIS New Connection Billing Collection Asset management Infrastructure Setup Slide No. 3 14 16 17 22 23 29 30 39 40 42 46 53 What is R-APDRP Power sector reforms in India have been going on for more than a decade Initially the focus was more on bringing about structural changes like unbundling of SEBs and creation of independent generation, transmission and distribution companies Subsequently power generation received maximum focus In the recent past, it was felt that power distribution was the weakest link in the entire value chain and sector cannot achieve viability unless issues in the power distribution sector are resolved, aiming at a sustainable development of the sector With these objectives in mind, Government of India’s Ministry of Power launched R-APDRP scheme This is a unique initiative in the utility industry globally This covers total automation of core utility business processes of the targeted towns in an ESCOM covering millions of consumers using a common infrastructure 3 What is R-APDRP R-APDRP is GoI’s initiative with primarily objectives of Establishment of baseline data Fixation of accountability Reduction of AT&C losses Commercial viability Reduction of outages & interruptions Increase consumer satisfaction through strengthening & up-gradation of Sub-Transmission & Distribution network...
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...approaches: OOP provides a clear modular structure for programs which makes it good for defining abstract data-types where implementation details are hidden and the unit has a clearly defined interface. OOP makes it easy to maintain and modify existing code as new objects can be created with small differences to existing ones. OOP provides a good framework for code libraries where supplied software components can be easily adapted and modified by the programmer. This is particularly useful for developing graphical user interfaces. Concepts of OOP: Objects which included classes, data abstraction and encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism. Purely in terms of total instruction path length, a program coded in an imperative style, without using any subroutines at all, would have the lowest count. However, the binary size of such a program might be larger than the same program coded using subroutines (as in functional and procedural programming) and would reference more "non-local" physical instructions that may increase cache misses and increase instruction fetch overhead in modern processors. The paradigms that use subroutines extensively (including functional, procedural and object-oriented) and do not also use significant in-lining (via compiler optimizations) will, consequently, use a greater percentage of total resources on the subroutine linkages themselves. Object oriented programs that do not deliberately alter program state directly, instead using mutator methods (or...
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...TERM PAPER System Software Topic: Compiler Generator Name: Animesh Poddar Section: K1R04 Roll: A07 Registration no.: 11003532 Course Code: CSE318 Submitted to: Ms. Himanshi Introduction In the field of computer sciences, we define a compiler-compiler or compiler generator as a tool which creates a parser, interpreter, or compiler from some form of formal description of a language and machine. The earliest and still most common form of compiler-compiler is a parser generator, whose input is a grammar (usually in BNF) of a programming language, and whose generated output is the source code of a parser often used as a component of a compiler. Similarly, code generator-generators (such as J Burg) exist, but such tools have not yet reached maturity. The ideal compiler-compiler takes a description of a programming language and a target instruction set architecture, and automatically generates a usable compiler from them. In practice, the state of the art has yet to reach this degree of sophistication and most compiler generators are not capable of handling semantic or target architecture information. History The first compiler-compiler to use that name was written by Tony Brooker in 1960 and was used to create compilers for the Atlas computer at the University of Manchester, including the Atlas Auto code compiler. However it was rather different from...
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...classified into three generations. Each generation lasted for a certain period of time,and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the existing computer. First generation: 1937 – 1946 - In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform single task, and they had no operating system. Second generation: 1947 – 1962 - This generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series computers made their mark in the computer world. During this generation of computers over 100 computer programming languages were developed, computers had memory and operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in use also were printers for output. Third generation: 1963 - present...
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...1 Student: ___________________________________________________________________________ 1. Which of these statements about the field of organizational behaviour is FALSE? A Organizational behaviour scholars study individual, team and structural characteristics that influence . behaviour within organizations. B. Leadership, communication and other organizational behaviour topics were not discussed by scholars until the 1940s. C. Organizational behaviour emerged as a distinct field around the 1940s. D. The field of OB has adopted concepts and theories from other fields of inquiry. E. OB scholars study what people think, feel and do in and around organizations. Which of these statements about the field of organizational behaviour is TRUE? A. Organizational behaviour emerged as a distinct field during the 1980s. B. The origins of some organizational behaviour concepts date back to Plato and other Greek philosophers. C. Information technology has almost no effect on organizational behaviour. D.The field of organizational behaviour relies exclusively on ideas generated within the field by organizational behaviour scholars. E. The origins of organizational behaviour are traced mainly to the field of economics. In the field of organizational behaviour, organizations are best described as: A. legal entities that must abide by government regulations and pay taxes. B. physical structures with observable capital equipment. C. social entities with a publicly stated set of formal goals...
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...History of Computers Carving notches into bones • 20,000 BC to 30,000 BC • Oldest known objects used to represent numbers • Discovered in Western Europe, date from the Aurignacian period correspond to the first appearance of Cro-Magnon man (caves of the same name in Southern France, in which the first skeletons of this race were discovered in 1868.) Abacus • 1000-500 BC • First actual calculating mechanism • Babylonians or Chinese Mechanical Calculator • 1500 AD, Leonardo Da Vinci • First mechanical calculator Napier’s Bones • 1614, John Napier • Multiplication tables inscribed on strips of wood or bone • Multiply, divide, square roots John Napier • Scottish Mathematician • Laird of Merchiston Wilhelm Schickard • German Astronomer and Mathematician Slide Rule • 1625, William Oughtred • Multiplication and division, and “scientific" functions such as roots, logarithms and trigonometry, but is not normally used for addition or subtraction. Pascaline • 1642, Blaise Pascal • First digital calculator • Used to add and subtract Blaise Pascal- French mathematician, physicist and theologian. Step Reckoner • 1670, Gottfried von Leibniz • Addition, subtraction, multiplication, divide, evaluate square roots Gottfried von Leibniz • German Baron • Entered University at 15 years old and received his bachelor’s degree at 17 y.o. Punched Card Loom • 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard •...
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...an electrical circuit and thus cause a counter to advance. This machine was able to complete the calculation of the 1890 U.S. census in 6 weeks compared with 7 1/2 years for the 1880 census which was manually counted. In 1936 Howard Aiken of Harvard University convinced Thomas Watson of IBM to invest $1 million in the development of an electromechanical version of Babbage's analytical engine. The Harvard Mark 1 was completed in 1944 and was 8 feet high and 55 feet long. At about the same time (the late 1930's) John Atanasoff of Iowa State University and his assistant Clifford Berry built the first digital computer that worked electronically, the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). This machine was basically a small calculator. In 1943, as part of the British war effort, a...
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