...controversy but extreme importance in modern philosophy. In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes utilizes methodological skepticism to present the foundationalist conception of knowledge, in which a belief can only be considered knowledge when it is based on basic principles, or principles that are justified without appealing to any external ideas or facts. Under the methodological skepticism, a person can test a belief by asking the question “Could it be false?” If the answer is “Yes,” the belief is not necessarily true and is not considered knowledge. This is the perfect tool for presenting a foundationalist conception of knowledge, unless there is an omnipotent being who can deceive people to think wrongly about these basic principles. Therefore, the existence of an omnipotent God and proof that God is not a deceiver is then presented in order to reject all doubts about the foundationalist conception of knowledge. A foundationalist conception of knowledge is a conception of academic discipline: one can only trust real knowledge that is based on basic principles. If a principle is wrong sometimes or is possibly wrong, it is not basic. If the principle is self-evident, showing its own truth, or is justified without appealing to any external ideas or facts, it is basic. Also, if the principle is clearly and distinctly perceived, and one cannot help but assent to it, the principle is necessarily true, or is self-evident. Senses are not necessarily true because they are “sometimes...
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...Introducing Metaphysics Lesson Overview Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions of reality. Since it deals with literally everything that exists, it is perhaps the broadest branch of philosophy. However, we will briefly spend time in this area. In this lesson, we will introduce some of the questions that we seek to answer in metaphysics as well as some basic metaphysical terminology you will need to master as we discuss metaphysical issues. We will also discuss the issue of method in arriving at answers to our metaphysical questions. Tasks Review and take notes of the presentation, “Metaphysical Terminology.”-Deals with reality - has 2 aspects to it: events and things or (time and space) -things: 3 attributes; properties, substance and an essence * Know the 4 characteristics of properties.- other words for properties: as qualities or characteristics; definition: this is an attribute or a quality a thing is said to possess, it’s a characteristic about that particular thing, (color, texture, size, shape) (adjectives) * 1) Properties are universals- they can be in more than one thing at a time. * 2) Properties are immutable and eternal- they do not change over time. * 3) Properties inhere in things- they are “had” by or are “in” things (they have to exist in things) * 4) Properties do not have causal powers- they cannot cause any things or event to occur. Two kinds: Accidental properties- properties...
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...and scripture. The sensus divinitatis is having a sense of the divine; Calvin said that we all have a natural, inbuilt sense of God. ‘There is indeed within the human mind, and indeed by natural instinct, an awareness of divinity. This we can take beyond controversy.’(Calvin, Institutes 1.1.3.) Calvin supported his claim with the universal consent argument, which was suggested by philosopher Cicero. The argument is that a God or Gods must exist as so many people from different ages and cultures, believe in a God or Gods of some sort. This seems to imply that all people have sense of the divine. Calvin developed the idea from St Paul that all humans have an innate, natural disposition to believe in God. In his letter to the Romans Paul wrote that knowledge of God is ‘plain to them, because God has shown it to them’ and Paul argued that we all know God unconsciously as without God we would not survive and thrive. A problem with this is the fact that many people believing in God does not prove his existence. Calvin said that God would still exist if no one believed in him, furthermore the only way we can truly know God is if we encounter him. Therefore the sensus divinitatis provides no real knowledge of what God is really like nor proves his existence. Paul Helm argues that it only confirms ones knowledge of God, so the sensus divinitatis requires there to be other ways in which to know God. Additionally if we can only have true knowledge of...
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...TOK – Aasir Osman Question – “There is no such thing as a true belief.” Discuss. A belief is a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality or values. They are not based on facts or other evidence. They cannot be disproved or even contested in a rational or logical manner. They are inarguable. They cannot serve as a thesis of formal argument. An example of a belief is that God created the world we live in today and everyone who resides on Planet Earth. Knowledge has traditionally been understood as “justified true belief”. This is the idea of people initially having faith in something they believe to be true and then logically thinking about in order to justify their belief. Once agreed it is a justified true belief it becomes common knowledge between everyone. This later introduces the idea of Epistemology which is how beliefs can be verified. Some beliefs are justified through epistemology making them a true belief thus disproving the fact that there is no such thing as a true belief. People who believe them have good reason to believe them. For much of what we believe however, we do not have any good reasons: we make guesses; we take things on faith. Epistemology is important because it is fundamental to how we think. Without some means of understanding how we acquire knowledge, how we rely upon our senses, and how we develop concepts in our minds, we have no coherent path for our thinking. Some beliefs would appear to be justified solely by the use of reason (WOK)...
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...framework, the standards are viewed as defining a function, m, from H into the real line such that m(8) m(77') That is, the standards if and only if 77R77'. are used to single out a most preferred alternative. Using the standards, we are able to compare any two accounting alternatives and decide which of the two is superior or whether they are equally desirable. Presumably, the comparisons are also transitive. One way of describing such a choice process, which we adopt, is to view the standards as providing a hypothetical numerical ranking for each of the alternatives. Note, however, that the domain of this ranking function is limited to E itself, without any reference to the individual's preferences and beliefs. A fundamental question now arises: does any such function, m(.), exist? In selected settings the answer is, no doubt, affirmative. But, in general, the answer is negative. This is discussed below. THE IMPOSSIBILITY RESULT max A E(U I y, 7, ay*)D(y | X7EXc YEY (2) (2) Observe that this characterization of the choice, or specification, of an accounting alternative is but an expected utility variant of the situation initially discussed. We provide for comparison of any pair of alternatives; and our comparisons are transitive. We place these comparisons in an expected utility format simply because it is convenient. Reliance on standards to specify the most preferred accounting alternative follows a somewhat different tack. The purpose is to select the preferred alternative...
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...Philosophers sometimes view the idea of human freedom of action as the real problem of free will, but this classification is one of the main misunderstandings in both subject matters. The misunderstanding between freedom and free will may have begun as early as the time when Thomas Hobbes and David Hume, argued their cases to support the theory of the modern concept of compatibilism. From both Hobbes’ and Hume’s perspective, to be free to act on one's will is basically to be free of external restrictions, limitations, constraints, and controls. From their perspective, the absence any external constraint gives makes the agent freedom to do as he or she wills, even if the person’s will itself is determined (or predetermined) by causal laws of nature. Factors That Affect Personal Development Take a moment to consider all of the genetic and environmental factors that have shaped who you are today, and you will quickly become overwhelmed. From gender, race, and socioeconomic background—to family dynamics, education, and genetics—there are millions of factors that have converged to make you who you are. Most people believe that humans are responsible for their own actions and that they all have the opportunity to make the right choices. But when you consider how large a role race, gender, wealth, and family upbringing all play in shaping an individual, can you truly believe that everyone has the same opportunities? Furthermore, are there some conditions under which people cannot...
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...religion and sociology, history, theology, and religious philosophy. philosophy of religion focus on the truth and reasonableness of religious beliefs. While the historian or sociologist may study religious beliefs, but his focus is not specifically on the truth or reasonableness of such belief theologian looks at religous beliefs from within, as an adherent or representative of a religous tradition. philosophy of religon may be engaged in by thinkers who are not religous at all, as well as by committed religous thinkers philosophy of religion not so much religious thinking as it is thinking about religion. Religious Philosophy is Religious thinking Explain the arguments for and problems with fideism. Fideism: human beings are never religously neutral; they are always either in faithful service to or in rebellion against God. Claims that faith is the precondition for any correct thinking about religion Problem: fideist cannot attempt to win over his critics by rational argument as the presupposition of such dialouge means the possibility of common ground (fideists deny common ground) eliminates the possibility of showing the nonbeliever the superiority of a religous worldview where should one place one's faith? What 2 factors do Evans and Manis raise in answering the fideist claim that critical reflection about religious beliefs is arrogant and presumptuous? God, if real, wnats humans to reflect about religous truth the manner in which the thinking is carried on. PAGE...
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...Europe and my mother from Asia what I have learnt from growing up in with both European and Asian culture is that neutrality is an illusion. It is an illusion because people will never achieve or consider “something” neutral as long as that “something” is different from how or what they think. I agree to the statement, but I have some reservations that neutral question can exist. The fundamental of un-neutrality is clashing of opinions in other words clashing of knowledge. Something that is based upon knowledge is already un-neutral because people will have their own opinion upon something, people will have their own unique paradigm. Even in times where knowledge is neutral people will have different views in assessing the knowledge itself, some people might have the same views in knowledge. However having the same views of knowledge does not mean when a person creates a question the question neutral. Having the same view of knowledge is really difficult as there are plenty factors that builds up a...
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...Renaissance to Revolution Term Paper Abbas Ali David Hume and the Fallacy (Philosophy) of Religion David Hume is considered the greatest philosopher Britain has produced and an intellectual hero to many atheists. His arguments against religion are clear, incisive and devastating. However, some people have misconstrued his agnosticism to represent faith and claim that while Hume challenged conventional religion, he himself believed in God. In this paper I will attempt to refute some of these claims by briefly highlighting some of Hume’s most compelling arguments against religion and showing how they leave little room for belief. I will also delve into some of the context surrounding Hume’s work to show how speaking against religion was a dangerous game in those times and restricted Hume’s ability to speak freely. Some of the primary sources used for this paper include Hume’s most famous works on religion, including The Natural History of Religion and Dialogues concerning Natural Religion. Secondary and tertiary sources include scholarly critiques of Hume’s texts as well as reviews and journals interpreting his work one way or another. To start with, lets have a look at an excerpt from, The Natural History of Religion, published in 1757. In the following passage, Hume summarizes his views on religion as “sick men’s dreams”: What a noble privilege is it of human reason to attain the knowledge of the supreme Being; and, from the visible works of nature, be enabled to infer...
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...empirical fact that the universe exists—and end with the conclusion that only God could be responsible for this fact” (63). While they take different forms, they all have this basic structure. Several of their forms were developed by St. Thomas Aquinas, one was his famous was the first-cause argument. It explains that everything that happens has a cause. So something must have been the first cause, which causes the second, and so on. God must be the first cause. Arguments against Aquinas’ question the idea that an infinite regress could not exist. Philosophers, like David Hume, state the universe needs no beginning, it could just be eternal. “The universe may have simply always been” (67). While cosmological appeals stand on the evidence mainly of experience, ontological arguments stand solely on logic. St. Anselm, originator of this theory, described god as “that which no greater can be conceived” (Oppy). He reasoned that nothing can be greater than a being that which no greater can be conceived therefore that being (God) exists. There are many objections to ontological arguments. One general criticism is that none of these arguments persuade those who do not already belief in a divine being. The monk Gaunilo of Marmoutier disagreed with St. Anselm’s reasoning because it invited parody (Oppy). Parallel arguments could be constructed to prove the existence of any perfect thing. If any of these arguments are deemed sound, then they must all be sound. Gaunilo used his reasoning...
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...are unsatisfied. In the first level, physiological needs exist which include the most basic needs for humans to survive, such as air, water and food. In the second level, safety needs exist which include personal security, health, well-being and safety against accidents remain. In the third level, belonging needs exist. This is where people need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. It is about relationships, families and friendship. Organizations fulfill this need for people. In the fourth level, self-esteem needs exist. People need to sense that they are valued by others and feel that they are making a contribution to the world. Achievement needs, respect of others are in this level. Participation in professional activities, academic accomplishments can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs. In the top-level, self-actualization needs exist. This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow separated the 05 needs into 2 categories called higher order needs and lower order needs. Physiological and safety needs were described as lower order needs and social esteem and self-actualization needs were described as higher order needs. The differentiation between the 02 orders was made based on the higher order needs are satisfied internally (within the person) while lower order needs are satisfied externally (by such things as pay). The basic idea of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is that our needs are constantly...
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...Phoenix This paper represents a discussion on the basic elements that comprise religious traditions. Included will be descriptions of the basic components of religious traditions along with the relationship they have with the divine, sacred time, sacred space and with each other. Also included will be discussion of what religious traditions say, what religious traditions do, and how they are organized. What makes a religion a religion? How does it affect the people that believe in it? How is religion affected by culture and vice versa? Religious study has evolved into a very complex academic endeavor. Whether it began as an attempt to either prove or disprove religion is not clear. What is evident is that most human cultures are profoundly shaped by the religious traditions of their respective regions. Studying religion will help one to gain perspective on the people that practice as well as the society in which they live. It has been noted that in studying religion, one brings their own beliefs into the process. Whether this is a help or hindrance is not as important as the fact that there are ways by which one can at least attempt to remain objective in the study of religion. What makes a religion a religion? Scholars have recognized that although the components may look different, there are certain elements, usually eight that should exist in order to consider something to be a religion. Belief System: Several beliefs fit together into a system that defines the universe...
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...pertains to harassment and diversity, and they must make a conscious effort to set a good example for their employees. The following paper will focus primarily on termination; describe the moral and ethical issues faced by managers dealing with termination; explain how relationships between social issues and ethically responsible management practices apply to termination; provide a workplace example of an ethical dilemma involving termination. Termination In the case of termination, performance evaluations, verbal and written warnings can be moral issues as they all entail truthfulness, evenhandedness, and the self-respect of the individual. Managers play a critical role in increasing engagement and building an ethical way of life for the most part sensible issues of company ethics. We need not determine all the rational disputes involving the utilitarian’s and the deontologists. Regardless of the different approaches, in the bulk of situations both techniques, if cautiously, delicately, and carefully applied, will generate the same ethical conclusion with respect to the values of the method. Numerous federal laws protect the workers’ rights when it entails, periodic evaluations, authority, and being terminated from employment. Numerous lawful solutions for employees who believe they are victims of unfairness in the workplace. Managers must know how to discipline their employees appropriately. Managers must ensure equality among employees in regard to discipline...
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...Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Can One Exist Without the Other? “Human beings must be known to be loved; but Divine beings must be loved to be known. One will find religions have similarities despite individual practices.” Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all relate to each other, yet all have distinct differences. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are three monotheistic religions that share many beliefs. Jews and Muslims stress the singularity and unity of God, addressing one all-powerful God and through him all things are made. Christians share this belief, however, difficulty arises when identifying Christianity as monotheistic when trying to understand or decipher God as the Holy Trinity and Jesus as the Son of God. According to all three religions, God is the origin of existence and He alone provides basic rules for guidance. Universally, God is merciful and through God one is given strength to be more like what one ought to be (Christ, Muhammad, etc.). All three religions believe humans are superior creatures on Earth and were made in God’s vision, created with mystery, allowing for growth and discovery. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim to have received the final revelation; through a scholarly standpoint one can see the three are intertwined; sharing origins, history, beliefs, and future. Judaism and Christianity both acknowledge the Bible, Prophets, and Jesus; despite the conflicting views of Jesus as the Son of God and Jesus being a “false Prophet...
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...one with the highest level of power. The idea of God is perceived differently in various religions. Starting from the name to the identity and attributes, everything is distinct and separate according to the basic rules of every religion and cultural norms. Primarily people assume that God doesn’t have any particular shape or cannot be depicted in any kind of visual form, but still in some religion people use the male gender to represent God. God has created every single living creatures and he is the one who knows everything and has full authority on what happens in the world and in everyone’s lives. He is someone who is worshipped by his devotees and the way he is worshipped or the way people believe in his existence is subject to the particular religion that one follows. Over the years, many philosophers have tried to contribute their ideas to come up with the most appropriate definition of God and to justify the relation between God and this world. In this report, those conceptions are going to be discussed and finally comments and arguments will be made regarding one specific conception, which will be deemed better or most agreeable compared to the other provided conceptions or arguments. Religious Conceptions of God In order to classify people based on their belief, religions have been divided into 2 major groups. * Theistic * Atheistic Theistic group of people are the ones who believes in the presence of God and practices a particular religion. Atheistic ones...
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