Free Essay

Battery

In: Science

Submitted By Identity1
Words 4218
Pages 17
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Alloys and Compounds journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jallcom

Nanostructured hybrid cobalt oxide/copper electrodes of lithium-ion batteries with reversible high-rate capabilities
Yue Qi, Ning Du ∗ , Hui Zhang, Jiazheng Wang, Yang Yang, Deren Yang
State Key Lab of Silicon Materials and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, People’s Republic of China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 29 October 2011
Received in revised form 5 January 2012
Accepted 7 January 2012
Available online 16 January 2012
Keywords:
Cobalt oxide
Cu nanorod arrays
Electrodeposition
Rf-sputtering
Anode
Lithium-ion batteries

a b s t r a c t
We report the synthesis of nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrodes through electrodeposition and sputtering. When applied as the anodes for lithium-ion batteries, the CoO/Cu nanowire arrays deliver long cycle life and enhanced power performance than CoO/Cu films. The large accessible surface area and improved electronic/ionic conductivity of the nanostructured electrodes may be responsible for the improved performance.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are currently the dominant power source for portable electronic devices due to their highest energy density among commercial rechargeable batteries, and considered to be the prime candidate for the next generation of electric vehicles [1]. However, the limited gravimetric capacity (372 mAh g−1 ) of carbon has prompted intensive research for alternative anode materials that have good rate capability and enhanced cycling life [2]. Since the discovery of 3d transition-metal oxides could show good performance as the anode materials of
Li-ion batteries, a great effort has been devoted to improve their capacity and cycling performance [3]. Among them, cobalt oxides
(Co3 O4 , CoO) demonstrated the better electrochemical properties in lithium-ion batteries, than nickel oxide and iron oxides [4–6].
The reversible electrochemical reaction mechanism of the cobalt oxide was demonstrated as the formation and decomposition of
Li2 O, accompanying the reduction and oxidation of Co nanoparticles (in the range of 1–5 nm), which is different from the classical Li insertion/deinsertion or Li-alloying processes [3]. However, cobalt oxide suffers from poor capacity retention due to the low electrical conductivity and large volume swings during the charge/discharge cycling [7–9]. Despite the improvements on the specific capacity and cyclability by using cobalt oxides nanomaterials [10–12], there

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 571 87953190; fax: +86 571 87952322.
E-mail address: dna1122@zju.edu.cn (N. Du).
0925-8388/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.01.046 are still great challenges in the preparation of nano-architectured
CoOx electrodes with high surface area, small crystal size and designed shapes.
Hybridizing nanostructured cobalt oxides with conducting matrices to form complex structures has been realized to be an effective route to overcome the above-mentioned problems
[13–17]. More recently, Taberna et al. [18] demonstrated a two-step designed electrode consisting of Cu nanorods grown on a current collector followed by electrodeposition of Fe3 O4 as an active material. This hybrid nanostructured electrode with large surface area and high electrical conductivity can shorten the lithiumion diffusion path, which leads to high specific capacities and enhanced rate performance. Bi [19], Sn [20,21] and Ni3 Sn4 [22] have also been deposited onto these nano-architectured Cu current collectors, which exhibited high-rate capability and long-cycle life. Herein, we report the fabrication of nanostructured hybrid
CoO/Cu electrodes through an electrodeposition and subsequent radio-frequency (RF)-sputtering approach. The nano-architectured current collector was obtained by growing a 3D array of Cu nanorods onto a Cu foil via electrodeposition assisted by a porous alumina membrane which was subsequently dissolved. The deposition of CoO onto Cu nanorods were achieved by controllable RF-sputtering, thus can form nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrodes. When applied as the anode material for lithiumion batteries, this nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode delivers high cycling life and enhanced power performance compared to planar electrodes. 84

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

Fig. 1. Schematic of the fabrication of a nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrode.

2. Experimental
All the chemicals were analytical grade without further purification. The fabrication process of nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrodes is schematically shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the whole process involves in two steps: (1) fabrication of Cu nanorod arrays as current collectors, and (2) sputtering deposition of CoO onto the nanostructured current collectors. The two steps are detailedly described in the following sections.
2.1. Fabrication of Cu nanorod arrays
Arrays of highly perpendicular Cu nanorods on a copper disk substrate were fabricated by cathodic electrodeposition inside the nanopores of an alumina oxide membrane, with a LK2006A electrochemical work station. The deposition is

proceeded on 1.5 cm diameter, 150-␮m thick, 99.9% Cu foils within an electrolytic bath containing CuSO4 ·5H2 O (Shanghai Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.) 100 g L−1 ,
(NH4 )2 SO4 (Huzhou Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.) 20 g L−1 and diethyl-tri-amine
(DETA, Sigma–Aldrich) 40 mL−1 . The AAO membrane (Whatman, Anodisc 47, reference 68095022) was 60-␮m thick and the diameter of the membrane was 47 mm.
The pore diameter was about 200 nm with a maximum porosity of about 50–65% and a pore density of 1010 cm−2 . Before electrodeposition, cathodes were mechanically polished with 1.0 ␮m alpha alumina and 0.25 ␮m gamma alumina polishing slurry, ultrasonically cleaned and rinsed with DI water. The polished Cu foil cathodes were further cleaned in ethanol and diluted HCl solution (10 vol%). The Cu foil anode, separator (filter paper soaked with electrolyte, Whatman), AAO template and polished
Cu foil cathode were packed in sequence, and kept under a constant pressure by using several stainless-steel clamps. The outer parts of the cathode and anode were protected from dissolution or deposition by isolating the adhesive film.

Fig. 2. Morphological and structural characterizations of Cu nanorod current collectors: (a) FESEM image of top view; (b) FESEM image of cross-sectional view; (c) TEM image; (d) magnified TEM image of single Cu nanorod.

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

85

Fig. 3. Morphological and structural characterizations of nanostructured CoO/Cu electrodes: (a) FESEM image of top view; (b) FESEM image of cross-sectional view; (c) TEM image and its SAED pattern (inset); (d) magnified TEM image. FESEM images of planar CoO/Cu electrode: (a) top view and (b) cross-sectional view.

Electrochemical Cu deposit was achieved using a cyclic voltammetry technique by sweeping the potential from −0.8 V to −1.0 V at room temperature. After the electrodeposition, the cathodes were immersed in a 2 M NaOH solution for 30 min to remove the AAO templates and cleaned in the diluted HCl solution to remove the surface oxides.

2.2. Sputtering deposition of CoO
Cu nanorod arrays were covered with CoO layer by RF-sputtering deposition using a 99.99% CoO target at a working pressure of 10 Pa. The working gas for deposition was 99.99% pure argon and the gas flow was 20 sccm during sputtering. The

86

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

Cu substrate was deposited for 40 min at a sputtering power of 100 W and kept at 300 ◦ C. After sputtering deposition, the load weight of CoO was measured to be
0.15 mg/cm2 .
2.3. Characterization
The obtained samples were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) using a Rigaku D/max-ga X-ray diffractometer with graphite monochromatized Cu
˚
K␣ radiation ( = 1.54178 A). The morphology and structure of the samples were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM-200 CX, 160 kV) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, Hitachi S-4800) with energydispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX).
2.4. Electrochemical measurements of CoO/Cu nanostructured electrodes
Electrochemical measurements were carried out using two-electrode cells with lithium metal as the counter and reference electrodes and the CoO/Cu nanostructured electrodes as the anodes. The electrolyte solution was 1 M LiPF6 dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC), propylene carbonate (PC), and diethyl carbonate (DEC) with the volume ratio of EC/PC/DEC = 3:1:1. The cell assembly was performed in a glovebox filled with pure argon (99.999%) in the presence of an oxygen scavenger and a sodium drying agent. The electrode capacity was measured by a galvanostatic discharge–charge method at a current density of 215 mA g−1 (0.3 C) in the potential range of 0.01–2.5 V at 20 ◦ C. Herein, 1 C is equal to 716 mA g−1 .
Cyclic voltammetry (CV) were recorded on a MSTAT4 (Arbin Instruments) system in the potential range of 0.0–2.5 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1 . The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of the electrodes was performed on a CHI660D electrochemical workstation with an ac signal of 5 mV in amplitude and the frequency ranged from 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz. Before the EIS measurement, the electrodes were cycled for five cycles, then discharged to 2.0 V and kept until the open-circuit voltage stabilized. 3. Results and discussion
Cu nanorod arrays were electrodeposited on the surface of the mechanically polished Cu disks with assistance of an AAO template.
Fig. 2a and b shows top and cross-sectional views of the Cu nanorod arrays on a current collector after removing the AAO membrane.
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images clearly show the uniformly distributed Cu pillars with diameters of about 200 nm, as defined by the pore size of the AAO template. The Cu nanorods with smooth surface were perpendicular to the surface and the inter-rod distance was measured to be about 150 nm. The TEM images (Fig. 2c and d) of a single Cu nanorod further confirm the 1D structure of this current collector.
Deposition of CoO onto Cu nanorods was achieved by a RFsputtering technique. Fig. 3 shows the SEM and TEM images of the nanostructured electrode after 40 min CoO deposition. The SEM images of top (Fig. 3a) and cross-sectional view (Fig. 3b) of the
CoO/Cu electrode clearly demonstrate that the CoO has been uniformly deposited onto the surface of the Cu nanorods without any coalescence between them. The TEM images (Fig. 3c and d) of a single CoO/Cu hybrid nanorod indicate that the uniform CoO layer was continuous and the thickness of this layer was measured between 30 and 100 nm, which is consistent with the SEM pictures.
According to the sputtering deposition technique and 1D array structure, the dispersion of CoO on the Cu nanorods was not homogeneous. It can be observed from Fig. 3c that more CoO was loaded on the top of the nanorod and the mass loading decreased along the nanorod. The polycrystalline structure of the CoO layer can be confirmed by its selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern
(Fig. 3c, inset). As observed, there are three diffraction rings corresponding to the (1 1 1), (2 0 0), and (2 2 0) planes of polycrystalline
CoO, respectively. For comparison of the electrochemical performance with nanostructured CoO/Cu arrays, planar electrode was also prepared by direct sputtering CoO on Cu planar under the same conditions. The SEM images (Fig. 3e and f) confirm the formation of planar CoO/Cu electrode with uniform and smooth surface, and the thickness of the CoO layer was measured to be 150 ␮m from the cross-sectional view (Fig. 3f).

Fig. 4. (a) XRD patterns of the planar and nanostructured CoO/Cu electrodes; (b)
EDX spectrum of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode.

Fig. 4a shows the XRD patterns of the as-prepared planar and nanostructured electrodes. There is little difference between these two patterns and all three peaks can be indexed to (1 1 1), (2 0 0), and (2 2 0) of cubic CoO phase (JCPDS: 43-1004), besides the reflections owing to metallic copper. This indicates the deposition of
CoO layer onto the Cu substrates. Fig. 4b is the energy-dispersive
X-ray (EDX) spectrum taken from the CoO/Cu hybrid nanorods.
As observed, the strong peaks of Cu, Co, and O elements are expected from the Cu nanorods and the CoO layer, respectively. The above-mentioned characterizations confirm the successful synthesis of nanostructured CoO/Cu hybrid electrodes on a copper substrate. Electrochemical tests were conducted by using the assynthesized nanostructured electrodes as a potential anode and Li metal as a cathode. Fig. 5 shows the first three cyclic voltammogram (CV) curves of nanostructured CoO/Cu hybrid electrodes in the potential range of 0.0–2.5 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1 . The
CV curves are in good agreement with the previous reported CoO anodes [23,24]. In the first cycle, a large cathodic current peak appears at 0.5 V which can be attributed to the formation of Li2 O and Co from the reduction of CoO. The cathodic peak at 0.5–0.8 V is also partly related to the formation of the SEI film. It is noticed that the cathodic peak at 0.5 V shifts to a higher potential, and become two peaks (one at 0.8 V and the other at 1.4 V) in the 2nd and 3rd cycles due to the pulverization of the CoO nanoparticles. During the

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

87

CoO, and the anodic peaks changed slightly in the 2nd and 3rd cycles. Poizot et al. have reported that the electrochemical reaction mechanism of Li with transition metal oxides, such as CoO, mostly involves in a conversion reaction as follows [3],
CoO + 2Li ↔ Li2 O + Co

Fig. 5. First three CV curves of the nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrode in the potential range of 0.0–2.5 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1 .

first lithiation process, the CoO particles are pulverized during Liinsertion and their surface energy is decreased due to interaction with the produced Li2 O, hence the potential of lithiation become higher in subsequent cycles. In the first anodic process, two oxidation peaks at 1.6 V and 2.0 V are attributed to the oxidation of

Fig. 6. First three discharge–charge curves of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode
(a) and planar CoO/Cu electrode (b) based anode material at a current density of
215 mA g−1 (0.3 C) at room temperature.

The electrochemical performance of as-synthesized nanostructured CoO/Cu hybrid electrodes was investigated and compared with the planar CoO/Cu electrodes. Fig. 6a and b displays the first three discharge–charge curves of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrodes and planar CoO/Cu electrodes at a current density of
215 mA g−1 (0.3 C) and room temperature. As shown in Fig. 6a, the first discharge curve of the CoO/Cu electrodes has an extended potential plateaus at about 1.0 V, followed by a sloping potentials at about 0.5 V. The nanostructured electrodes delivers the first discharge capacity of 1362 mAh g−1 and the first charge capacity of
903 mAh g−1 , which indicates that its Coulombic efficiency is 66.3%.
In contrast, the planar CoO/Cu electrode delivers initial discharge and charge capacities of 1416 mAh g−1 and 772 mAh g−1 , respectively, indicating that it has an initial Coulombic efficiency of 54.5%, which is much lower than that of the nanostructured electrode.
The irreversible capacity loss of the CoO/Cu electrodes is mainly due to the formation of the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer and partial irreversible electrochemical reactions during further cycling because of the Co aggregation [25]. Compared to the planar electrode, the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode could improve

Fig. 7. (a) Discharge capacity versus cycle number for the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode and planar electrode at a current density of 215 mA g−1 (0.3 C) at room temperature. Here, 1 C is equal to 716 mA g−1 . (b) Nyquist plots of nanostructured
CoO/Cu electrode and planar electrode obtained by applying a sine wave with amplitude of 5 mV over the frequency range 100 kHz to 0.01 Hz.

88

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89

semicircle is attributed to the SEI film and/or contact resistance, while the semicircle in medium frequency region is assigned to the charge–transfer impedance on electrode/electrolyte interface. The inclined line at an approximate 45◦ angle to the real axis corresponds to the lithium-diffusion process within electrodes [31–33].
It is shown that the diameter of the semicircle in medium frequency region for the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode is smaller than that of planar electrode, revealing lower charge–transfer impedances, indicating that the charge–transfer process of the nanostructured
CoO/Cu electrode has been improved due to the nanostructure of
Cu current collectors.
The nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode and planar CoO/Cu electrode were also tested for their rate capability. Fig. 8a compares the discharge capacities of the two electrodes at current rates between
0.3 C and 10 C. Good rate capacity is observed for the nanostructured electrode with capacity retention of 66.5% between 0.3 C and
10 C, which is much higher than that of planar electrode (only about 5%). Even at 10 C (7160 mA g−1 ), the electrode is capable of delivering stable capacity of 530 mAh g−1 (much higher than graphite capacity: 372 mAh g−1 ). Upon decreasing the rate from
10 C to 0.3 C, nearly 100% of the initial capacity at 0.3 C (about
800 mAh g−1 ) can be recovered, while the planar electrode can just only recover 42% of the initial capacity. The structural stability of nano-electrode materials during cycling plays a critical role in their cycling performance, which can be confirmed by morphologies of the electrode after cycling. Fig. 8b shows the SEM image of nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode after 50 discharge/charge cycles at various C rates. As observed, the CoO active material layer still sticks on the Cu nanorod surface and no appreciable change in morphology could be noticed, which can explain the excellent power capability and capacity retention of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode. 4. Conclusions

Fig. 8. (a) Specific capacities of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode and planar electrode for different discharge/charge cycles at various C rates. Here, 1 C is equal to 716 mA g−1 . (b) SEM image of the nanostructured electrode after the cycling test.

the electronic/ionic conductivity of the CoO/Co0 /Li2 O matrix and prevent Co particles from aggregating somehow, resulting in an improved initial Coulombic efficiency.
Fig. 7a shows the discharge capacity versus cycle number for the nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrode and planar CoO/Cu electrode at a current density of 215 mA g−1 (0.3 C) at room temperature. It can be seen that the capacity of nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode experiences a gradual increasing process and stabilizes at 970 mAh g−1 after 200 discharge/charge cycles. Similar capacity rising phenomena have been observed from transition-metal oxides composite anode materials [26–28]. The reversible formation of polymeric gel-like film, which results from the decomposition of electrolyte, can be responsible for the capacity rising phenomena [29,30]. In contrast, the capacity behavior of the planar electrode shows a sharp and constant decrease associated with huge volume change and aggregation of the Co particles during the electrochemical process.
EIS was used to understand the relevance of morphology and surface area of the nanostructured CoO/Cu electrode and the planar electrode with the electrochemical performance in terms of the total internal electrochemical impedances of a cell. The characteristic impedance curves (Nyquist plots) for the two electrodes are shown in Fig. 7b. In impedance spectroscopy, the high frequency

Nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrodes were synthesized through electrodeposition and RF-sputtering. When applied as the anode material for lithium-ion batteries, the nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrode delivers a capacity of 970 mAh g−1 at a current of 0.3 C after 200 discharge/charge cycles. Even at 10 C
(7160 mA g−1 ), the electrode is capable of delivering stable capacity of 530 mAh g−1 . Upon decreasing the rate from 10 C to 0.3 C, nearly
100% of the initial capacity at 0.3 C (about 800 mAh g−1 ) can be recovered. The electrochemical performance of the nanostructured hybrid CoO/Cu electrode is much better than planar CoO/Cu electrode, which can be attributed to the large accessible surface area and improved electronic/ionic conductivity of the nanostructured electrodes. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to appreciate the financial support from the 863 Project (No. 2011AA050517), NSFC (No. 51002133) and
Innovation Team Project of Zhejiang Province (2009R50005).
References
[1] J.B. Goodenough, Y. Kim, Chem. Mater. 22 (2010) 587–603.
[2] J.M. Tarascon, M. Armand, Nature 414 (2001) 359–367.
[3] P. Poizot, S. Laruelle, S. Grugeon, L. Dupont, J.M. Tarascon, Nature 407 (2000)
496–499.
[4] J. Zhong, X.L. Wang, X.H. Xia, C.D. Gu, J.Y. Xiang, J. Zhang, J.P. Tu, J. Alloys Compd.
509 (2011) 3889–3893.
[5] K.T. Nam, D.W. Kim, P.J. Yoo, C.Y. Chiang, N. Meethong, P.T. Hammond, Y.M.
Chiang, A.M. Belcher, Science 312 (2006) 885–888.
[6] N. Du, H. Zhang, B.D. Chen, J.B. Wu, X.Y. Ma, Z.H. Liu, Y.Q. Zhang, D.R. Yang, X.H.
Huang, J.P. Tu, Adv. Mater. 19 (2007) 4505–4509.

Y. Qi et al. / Journal of Alloys and Compounds 521 (2012) 83–89
[7] G.X. Wang, Y. Chen, K. Konstantinov, J. Yao, J.-H. Ahn, H.K. Liu, S.X. Dou, J. Alloys
Compd. 340 (2002) L5–L10.
[8] W. Wen, J. Wu, J. Tu, J. Alloys Compd. 513 (2012) 592–596.
[9] Y. Yu, G. Ji, J. Cao, J. Liu, M. Zheng, J. Alloys Compd. 471 (2009) 268–271.
[10] Z. Wu, L. Qin, Q. Pan, J. Alloys Compd. 509 (2011) 9207–9213.
[11] X.H. Xia, J.P. Tu, J.Y. Xiang, X.H. Huang, X.L. Wang, X.B. Zhao, J. Power Sources
195 (2010) 2014–2022.
[12] B. Wang, Y. Wang, J. Park, H. Ahn, G. Wang, J. Alloys Compd. 509 (2011)
7778–7783.
[13] J. Zhu, Y.K. Sharma, Z. Zeng, X. Zhang, M. Srinivasan, S. Mhaisalkar, H. Zhang,
H.H. Hng, Q. Yan, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 8400–8406.
[14] C. Wang, D. Wang, Q. Wang, L. Wang, Electrochim. Acta 55 (2010) 6420–6425.
[15] Y. Qi, N. Du, H. Zhang, P. Wu, D. Yang, J. Power Sources 196 (2011) 10234–10239.
[16] X. Huang, Y. Yuan, Z. Wang, S. Zhang, F. Zhou, J. Alloys Compd. 509 (2011)
3425–3429.
[17] J. Yang, M. Wang, Y. Zhu, H. Zhao, R. Wang, J. Chen, J. Alloys Compd. 509 (2011)
7657–7661.
[18] P.L. Taberna, S. Mitra, P. Poizot, P. Simon, J.M. Tarascon, Nat. Mater. 5 (2006)
567–573.
[19] A. Finke, P. Poizot, C. Guéry, L.C. Dupont, P.-L. Taberna, P. Simon, J.-M. Tarascon,
Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 11 (2008) E5–E9.
[20] L. Bazin, S. Mitra, P.L. Taberna, P. Poizot, M. Gressier, M.J. Menu, A. Barnabé, P.
Simon, J.M. Tarascon, J. Power Sources 188 (2009) 578–582.

89

[21] J. Wang, N. Du, H. Zhang, J. Yu, D. Yang, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011)
23620–23624.
[22] J. Hassoun, S. Panero, P. Simon, P.L. Taberna, B. Scrosati, Adv. Mater. 19 (2007)
1632–1635.
[23] W. Yao, J. Yang, J. Wang, Y. Nuli, J. Electrochem. Soc. 155 (2008) A903–A908.
[24] J. Do, C. Weng, J. Power Sources 159 (2006) 323–327.
[25] X.J. Zhu, Z.P. Guo, P. Zhang, G.D. Du, R. Zeng, Z.X. Chen, S. Li, H.K. Liu, J. Mater.
Chem. 19 (2009) 8360–8365.
[26] P. Wu, N. Du, H. Zhang, J. Yu, D. Yang, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 3612–3620.
[27] H. Zhang, J. Wu, C. Zhai, X. Ma, N. Du, J. Tu, D. Yang, Nanotechnology 19 (2008)
035711–035715.
[28] J. Zhu, T. Zhu, X. Zhou, Y. Zhang, X.W. Lou, X. Chen, H. Zhang, H.H. Hng, Q. Yan,
Nanoscale 3 (2011) 1084–1089.
[29] S. Laruelle, S. Grugeon, P. Poizot, M. Dollé, L. Dupont, J.M. Tarascon, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) A627–A634.
[30] J.-S. Do, C.-H. Weng, J. Power Sources 146 (2005) 482–486.
[31] S. Yang, H. Song, X. Chen, Electrochem. Commun. 8 (2006) 137–142.
[32] X.H. Huang, J.P. Tu, C.Q. Zhang, J.Y. Xiang, Electrochem. Commun. 9 (2007)
1180–1184.
[33] T. Zhang, H.P. Zhang, L.C. Yang, B. Wang, Y.P. Wu, T. Takamura, Electrochim.
Acta 53 (2008) 5660–5664.

Similar Documents

Free Essay

Batteries

...the Battery Could you imagine a world where every electronic device we owned has to be plugged into a wall socket in order for them to be able to be used and keep a charge? This would be very inconvenient. Mobility is important as well as very useful in our lives and therefore; it would only seem right that someone invented a way for our electronic devices to keep a charge without being constantly plugged into a socket. This man’s name was Alessandro Volta and he created the first battery in 1799, although there has been evidence of “clay pot” batteries dating back to 200 B.C. In order for an electronic device to be functional, electrical energy must be produced. In 1799, Physicist Alessandro Volta realized this reaction called “electrochemical reaction” is necessary in producing electrical energy and he was able to create the first battery by using an arrangement called the voltaic pile, in which he stacked alternating layers of zinc, brine-soaked pasteboard or cloth and sliver which created a steady, lasting current. This method has been improved throughout the years and is now made of many different materials and come in many different sizes and shapes. The next improvement on the battery did not come until 1836 when the Daniell cell was invented. This type of battery was invented by chemist John Frederick Daniell and was a way to power doorbells and telephones. In 1898, the battery called the Colombia Dry Cell was the first commercially used battery in the...

Words: 688 - Pages: 3

Free Essay

Battery

...metal cylinders that power our lifestyles; our televisions, radios, CD players, portable phones, and clocks. Our cars, planes, and even our homes are no exception, they too contain devious contraptions of metal, acid, and wire. Even the hearts of our vice presidents are not free from the hidden enemy. Thousands die daily, but millions more take their places; they are silent, hidden from our eyes. Waiting for revenge. The battery rebellion is almost at hand, but it has been in the making for hundreds of years. While technically a battery is an energy storage system, most people refer to a battery as a chemical/electrical system, rather than any object with potential energy (a flywheel, a spring, a piece of firewood, or a bucket of water). Chemical electrical batteries work through a redox chemical reaction, short for reduction oxidation (the same reaction behind other tried and true human inventions like fire). Basically, an electrical current is generated when oxygen ions are mercilessly ripped from one molecule and forced upon another. A simple battery must then contain three things; two different materials (with contrasting oxidation potentials) and an electrolyte - the material which links the previous two and encourages the violent and unjust treatment of oxygen ions. You, the suspicious and disbelieving soul, can test this out by mercilessly sticking a lemon with a strip of copper and a strip of zinc. The copper and zinc are the anode and cathode, and the lemon juice...

Words: 288 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Battery

...The usage of "battery" to describe a group electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon[2] (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together[3]). Alessandro Volta described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile in 1800.[4] This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[5] and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[6] Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.[7] It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[8] These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone...

Words: 295 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Batteries

...know energy for providing us light and comfort. It can help us to cool down during summers and feel warm during winters. It also helps us to go from one place to another. There has been an enormous increase in the global demand for energy in recent years as a result of industrial development and population growth. Supply of energy is, therefore, far less than the actual demand. Wherefore, the great bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy caused energy crisis. We all know that our world today is now facing energy crisis. Everyone is trying to do something and solve that about that problem. In this study, we can prove that electricity can be produced by vinegar. After all, vinegar is abundant everywhere. A battery is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy. It contains thousands of charges (protons & electrons). It is also defined as a container consisting of one or more cells, in which chemical energy is converted into electricity and is used as a source of power. Likewise, vinegar is a liquid consisting mainly of acetic acid and water. It is produced from the fermentation of ethanol into acetic acid. The fermentation is carried out by bacteria. Because different metals have different levels of attraction for their electrons, one of the metals would lose electrons, a process which chemists call oxidation, and the other gains electrons, which is called reduction. The metal being oxidized is called the anode...

Words: 347 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Lemon Battery

...Visit us at www.pro-base.eu - 1 - HOMEMADE BATTERIES Making and evaluating homemade batteries Author Ken Gadd, 4science, Stratford sub Castle, SP1 3YP, UK; ken@4science.org.uk Languages available English, Slovenian Summary Batteries power most of the portable electrical and electronic devices we use. Different types are available, suited for different uses. Batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy. You can make a battery from a lemon, a piece of zinc and a piece of copper. So why don’t we use this instead of buying batteries from shops? In this activity you find out. You also explore other homemade batteries, including a seawater battery made by scientists in the BBC TV programme Rough Science. The purpose is to explore the potential of low technology homemade batteries as emergency power supplies. Activity type H Use of scientific knowledge and understanding to solve problems Working in teams to solve problems Communication Resource/budget management Time and workload management Techniques Field Electrochemistry Visit us at www.pro-base.eu - 2 - Time Practical lessons: 600 minutes Theory lessons: 120 minutes Out of class time: 360 minutes StandardBase procedures None StandardBase techniques None Other resources Zavod za šolstvo, Ljubljana (The National Education Institute of the Republic of Slovenia), http://www.zrss.si/ Other resources are listed in the activity...

Words: 6187 - Pages: 25

Premium Essay

Vinegar Battery

...Vinegar as a battery of Calculator Uba, Terrence L. Navarro, Loyd V. Ebabacol, Ruben S. Baa, Margaux Eve P. Ompoc, Shamira Jasmine C. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in Research 1 Alubijid National Comprehensive High School Special Science Class Alubijid, Misamis Oriental January 8, 2014 Mrs. Ma. Romila D. Uy Research Adviser Abstract Battery is a device used to store electrical energy. Battery can also be called a cell in which the reaction between two different substances can be made to occur in such a way that some of the chemical energy is converted into a useful electricity. Since its invention and inception, battery has become the most common power source for many household and industries. The vinegar battery is constructed out from simple components or materials. Adding an amount of vinegar to a strip of different metals like copper, from copper wires and zinc, from nails can form a simple battery. This battery has a low amperage output which can supply power on a low amperage/low voltage device like a calculator. It is easy to construct. The following steps should be followed in constructing the vinegar battery: 1. Prepare all the materials needed like: * Vinegar * Strip of Zinc from nails * Strip of copper from copper wire * Vinegar container (non-metallic) * Multi-tester 2. Place the vinegar inside the container. Make sure that it is deep enough to suspend the two different metals on it. 3. Cut a piece of copper...

Words: 2646 - Pages: 11

Free Essay

Liquid Battery

...Homemade Batteries Homemade batteries are a popular subject with my readers. Making electricity from things you find around the house is a fun project. There are lots of easy ways to make homemade batteries. Basically, any two different kinds of metal can be placed in a conducting solution and you get a battery. Familiar homemade batteries include sticking copper and zinc strips into a lemon or a potato to make a battery. One quick battery is made from a soda can, the soda from the can, and some copper. Click on image for a larger picture The photo above shows a battery made by placing a strip of copper and a strip of aluminum into a glass of Coca-Cola (I used the sugar-free cherry flavored variety because that's what I found in the refrigerator). You can make the aluminum strip by cutting open the can. You will need some sandpaper to sand off the paint and plastic coating from the aluminum before using it. Or you can get strips of aluminum already free of coatings from a hardware store, or from our catalog. You can get copper flashing from a hardware store and cut out a strip of it, or you can use a bunch of copper wire (the more surface area exposed to the liquid, the more electrical current is produced). Or, as before, you can get pre-cut strips from our catalog. The aluminum-copper-coke battery will produce about three quarters of a volt. Click on image for a larger picture Using a zinc strip instead of the aluminum produces a little over a volt in the copper-zinc-coke...

Words: 2668 - Pages: 11

Premium Essay

Vinegar Battery

...Final Investigatory Project for Group 5 I. Problems and Setting A. Introduction Batteries, years ago, have taken the world by a storm and have since than became a necessity in one’s household. Sadly, even though they are tremendously useful, batteries have drawbacks, such as semi- affordable costs, limited shelf life and pollution. Our group had an idea on how to make an alternative to this that would not only work like the real thing but would also be healthy to our environment and light in our pockets. This idea turned out to be realty and became the main goal of our Investigatory Project. B. Problems Finding an item that is easy to obtain and at the same time affordable, simple and earth- friendly is not an easy task. After a lot of thought, our group decided to use one of the objects that is almost always present in our daily lives: fruits and vegetables. Will these everyday materials such as apples, bananas, oranges, lemons and potatoes conduct electricity? Well, let’s see about that. C. Hypothesis A circuit is made up of a path, a source and a load. We believe that we should connect them with a (+) and a (-) wire so that the flow will be even with no reverse polarity. The load we thought of using was a battery- operated clock, one of the most common materials found in almost everyone’s household. We believe that it would work because the organic materials we will use have electrolytes that flow freely on its own. Thus, it will flow into conductors to make...

Words: 1723 - Pages: 7

Free Essay

Battery

... Servicing Lead Acid Battery Aizat Hizami Bin Abu Bakar, Unikl MIAT, aizathizami@gmail.com Abstract—These articles is about servicing one of the type of battery which is Lead Acid Battery. In time, batteries’ capacity may decrease due to the way we handle the battery thus proper way of servicing and charging of the battery is necessary. The capacity of the battery can be maintain through the process of servicing below. Index Terms—Battery I. INTRODUCTION O NE of the most important aspects of battery servicing is to keep the battery clean and all the terminals tight and free of corrosion. If any corrosion exists on the battery terminals or within the battery box, it should be removed. One way to do this is by scrubbing the battery box and the top of the battery with a soft bristle brush and a solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water. When washing the top of the battery, avoid getting any baking soda in the cells since it neutralizes the electrolyte. After the battery and box are clean, rinse them with clean water and dry thoroughly. Coat the battery terminals with petroleum jelly or general purpose grease, and touch up any paint damage to the battery box or adjacent area with an acid-resistant paint. A lead acid battery goes through three life phases, called formatting, peak and decline are shown in Figure 1. Fig. 1. Cycle life of a battery In the formatting phase try to imagine sponge-like lead plates that are being exposed to a liquid. Exercising...

Words: 1330 - Pages: 6

Premium Essay

Assault and Battery

..."Assault and Battery" Assault and battery are two separate crimes. Assault is when a person tries to injure another person. Battery is when the criminal actually injures another person. These terms are usually coupled together and used as one offense. A person can commit assault and not commit battery. Furthermore, a person cannot commit battery without assaulting the victim. The Virginia law code states that when a "simple" assault and battery occurs, the criminal will be guilty of a Class 1 misdemeanor. But when a person intentionally picks out another person because of his "race, religious conviction, color, or national origin," the penalty will be a minimum term of six (6) months and thirty (30) days in prison. There are different types of assault. One form of assault is, "Assault with a Deadly or Dangerous Weapon." When a criminal is charged with such a crime, the penalty received is a felony. A felony is defined as any sentence in which the criminal serves a minimum of a year in jail. A question that might arise is, "What is considered a 'Deadly or Dangerous Weapon'?" To this question, the response would be absolutely everything, if applied in any way that could be deadly to a person. A sock can be used as a deadly when if it is placed in a person's mouth and forces them to choke or cause other fatal wounds. Another form of assault is sexual assault. This term, again, is coupled with the term sexual battery. In the Commonwealth of Virginia, the prosecutor must...

Words: 346 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Superionic Battery

...ASSIGNMENT 1 DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERIONIC GLASS FOR BATTERY MOHD RAFEEZ BIN RAZI A11SC0120 MOHD SYAKIR BIN MOHD NASIR A11SC0220 MUHAMMAD MUHSIN BIN TAHIR A11SC0008 PROF DR RAHIM BIN SAHAR Abstract Development of rechargeable batteries can be effectively store renewable energy, wind power and solar power. It is important to developed to reduce the greenhouse emissions. Rechargeable sodium batteries are more suitable compare to lithium-ion batteries because they use abundant and ubiquitous sodium sources. Introduction Sodium-ion rechargeable batteries, using abundant sodium sources, are suitable for use in distributed power systems that store renewable energy at individual houses [1]. Currently, sodium−sulphur (NAS) batteries [2] are used for large-scale storage, because they have high energy densities of up to 760 Wh kg−1. However, NAS batteries need to be operated at temperatures up to 300 °C to use liquid-state sulphur-positive electrodes and sodium-negative electrodes and to enhance the conductivity of β-alumina solid electrolyte, a well-known Na+ ion conductor. Research regarding Li+ ion conducting electrolytes and found that solid sulphide electrolytes made from the system Li2S–P2S5 have a high conductivity and a wide electrochemical window [5] ,making them suitable for all-solid-state lithium secondary batteries that have excellent cycling and rate performances [6]. In this study, we developed a sulphide glass-ceramic electrolyte by crystallization...

Words: 1361 - Pages: 6

Free Essay

Fruit Battery

...qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfgh jklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvb nmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwer Fruit Batteries Science Fair Project tyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas Project Guidebook dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuio pasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghj klzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbn mqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdf ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrty uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdf ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc © 2009 Supercharged Science By Aurora Lipper © 2009 Supercharged Science www.AwesomeScienceProjects.com Page 1 Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................2 How to Use This Book: ................................................................................................................3 Materials List...............................................................................................................................5 Create a Science Fair Project with Fruit & Veggies .......................................................................6 Sample Data Sheet ....................................................................................................................10 Sample Report ................................................................

Words: 6809 - Pages: 28

Free Essay

Vinegar as Alternative Battery

...for cooking. Most people are not aware that it actually has other uses at home like lighting small LED bulbs. Thus, when the researchers came across this project on the internet, we grabbed the opportunity of proving whether or not this is a possibility. With the cheap and readily-available materials, this project can provide households with an alternative source of light that can easily be done and replicated. Although this may seem as a step back for advancements in technology because it makes use of household materials instead of more complicated ones, this is one step ahead towards innovation. b. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Can Vinegar be used as a battery for lighting small LED bulbs? c. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The researchers chose this investigatory project of vinegar being used as a battery for lighting LED lights for two of its possible contributions to the community: first, it can be used as a safe, better and cheaper alternative to sources of lights in case of blackouts, and second, people can use it as an alternative source of light at home to lower their power consumption. The Philippines is an archipelago surrounded by large bodies of water making it susceptible to typhoons. The last devastating typhoon, Yolanda, had left Leyte and other parts of the country in turmoil with no food, water, and electricity for not just days but for months, and this will not be the last time that a huge typhoon will hit the country and leave another part of our...

Words: 2186 - Pages: 9

Free Essay

Battery Industry

... According to Battery University, the global battery market is about $50 billion U.S. of which %5.5 billion is allocated to secondary batteries. Global primary and secondary battery markets are expected to grow due to industrialization, gross domestic product (GDP), and economic growth. Because of the recent economic slowdown, many nations have set recovery plans in place, which would increase the demand for batteries across the global market. Because of China and India’s GDP rates, they have a greater opportunity to have higher growth rates within the battery industry. With the assurgency of digital cameras, phones, portable entertainment devices, computing devices, electronic automobiles, along with the consumer’s ability to buy, the demand for secondary batteries is expect to outperform the primary battery as the world moves forward towards rechargeable devices. Therefore, any new company looking to get into the battery monitoring industry have their work cut out for them. They must come up with new and innovative products/services that will keep up with the ever changing technology. For example, simply inventing a prototype similar to other products within the industry won’t cut it. The company entering the market has to make sure that whatever product that they have must enhance the other products in the market or be something completely different than what has already been seen. The automotive industry also shows potential for secondary batteries as the industry...

Words: 412 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Battery Charger

...Highly-Efficient Battery Chargers with ParallelLoaded Resonant Converters Ying-Chun Chuang e-mail:chuang@mail.ksu.edu.tw Yu-Lung Ke e-mail:yulungke@ms25.hinet.net Shun-Yi Chang e-mail:nickelayu@hotmail.com Department of Electrical Engineering, Kun Shan University, Tainan Hsien 71003, Taiwan, R.O.C. Abstract—The well established advantages of resonant converters for battery chargers, including fast response, low switching losses, easy of the control scheme, simplicity of circuit configuration, and low electromagnetic interference (EMI), among others, have led to their increasing attraction. This work develops a highly efficient battery charger with a parallel-loaded resonant converter for battery charging applications to improve the performance of traditional switching-mode charger circuits. The charging voltage can be regulated by varying the switching frequency. The switching frequency of the parallel-loaded resonant battery charger was set at continuous conduction mode (CCM). Circuit operation modes are determined from the conduction profiles. Operating equations and operating theory are also developed. This study utilizes the fundamental wave approximation with a battery equivalent circuit to simplify the charger circuit analyses and presents an efficient, small-sized, and cost-effective switched-mode converter for battery chargers. A prototype charger with parallel-loaded resonant converter designed for a 12V-48Ah battery is built and tested to verify the analytical...

Words: 6645 - Pages: 27