MY BIOLOGY S.B.A

Lab #1
Topic: Classification
Aim: To classify organisms into groups
Apparatus:
Method: A list of 10 organisms in my school environment was made and observed. A table was constructed to show the organism and their visible characteristics. Another table was constructed to show the kingdom, phylum and class to which the organisms belong.

Observation Organism | Visible Characteristics | Bird | They are vertebrates with a pair of wings. They also have a beak | Cat | They are vertebrates that have sharp claws, a smooth coat of hair (fur) and panted teeth | Earth Worm | Has a long, ring-like segmental body, lives in the soil, has a clitellum | Lizard | Has a scaly skin, 2 pairs of legs | Crab | Has a hard exo-skeleton, has claws, four pairs of jointed legs, seen in wet places | | | Plants | | Pine | Has stems, roots and leaves, produces seed that grow inside cones | Fern | Has roots, stems and leaves, has spores on the underside of the leaves, does not have flower | Hibiscus | Produces flowers, has root, stems and leaves | Leaf of Life | Does not produce flower, has roots, stems and leaves | Mahogany | Has roots, Stems and leaves |

| Organism | Kingdom | Phylum | Class | 1 | Bird | Animalia | Chordata | Ares | 2 | Cat | Animalia | Chordata | Mammalia | 3 | Earthworm | Animalia | Chordata | | 4 | Lizard | Animalia | Chordata | Reptilia | 5 | Crab | Animalia | Chordata | Crustacea |

Plants 1 | Pine | Plantae | Conferophyta | Monocotyledon | 2 | Fern | Plantae | Filrunophyta | Monocotyledon | 3 | Hibiscus | Plantae | Angiospermophyta | Dicotyledon | 4 | Leaf of Life | Plantae | Angiospermophyta | Dicotyledon | 5 | Mahogany | Plantae | Angiospermophyta | Dicotyledon |

Discussion: An organism is any living thing. There are various organisms in our environment thus they are grouped by their similarities. Classification is the grouping of organisms according to how they are related to each other. Living things are grouped into species. Specie is a group of organisms with similar characteristics which can bread with each other, but not with organisms of different species. Species are grouped into genera. Each genus contains several species with similar characteristics. Genera are then grouped into a family, families into order, orders into classes, classes into phyla and phyla into kingdoms.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that organisms can be classified into groups.

Lab #2
Topic: Interdependence amo. organisms
Aim: To investigate interdependence amo. organisms
Apparatus: Note book, Ruler, Pen, Paper
Method: A table was constructed to show ten (10) organisms seen around a school compound and their food source. From the information in the table, two food chains and one food web was constructed. On the food web the trophic levels and the name of each levels at which the organisms feed was given.

Observation: | Organism | Food Source | 1 | Grasshopper | Grass | 2 | Preying Mantis | Grass Hopper | 3 | Caterpillar | Leaf | 4 | Butterfly | Nectar from Hibiscus | 5 | Lizard | Grass Hopper, Preying Mantis | 6 | Hawk | Lizard | 7 | Goat | Grass | 8 | Fish | Algae | 9 | Male Cricket | Hibiscus | 10 | Grass | Make their own food | 11 | Hibiscus | Make their own food |

Food chains representing the above information (1) Grass > Grasshopper > Preying Mantis > Lizard > Hawk (2) Hibiscus > Mole Cricket > Insect

Food Web Trophic Level Hawk 5 Lizard 4 Preying Mantis 3 Grasshopper Goat Mole Cricket Butterfly 2 Grass Hibiscus 1

1 – Primary Producers
2 – Primary Consumers
3 – Secondary Consumers
4 – Tertiary Consumers

Types of relationship that may exist among organism.

1. Predator / Prey 2. Exchange of gas (Co2 & O2) among plants and animals. 3. Mutualism

Discussion: Green plants are called producers because they are the only one that trap sunlight used to make energy. This energy is the only source of energy for living organisms. Animals that feed on plants are called herbivores animals that feed on other animals are called carnivores and animals that feed on both plant and animals are called omnivores. A food chain shows the flow of energy from plants to animals and from animals to other animals. A food web shows the feeding relationship between all the organisms in the ecosystem. A trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies on the food chain. It indicates the number of organisms between the feeder and the sun. a trophic level doesn’t normally go beyond five (5) trophic levels because the energy is continually being used up from one organism to the next therefore there would be no energy left to be pass on. The most energy was concentrated in the producer or the 1st trophic level because this is where the energy has been first converted from the sun into energy as food. The least energy was concentrated at the 5th trophic level because as the energy is being passed on it is being used up by other organisms therefore the energy level decreases.

Conclusion: it can be concluded that there are relationships that exist among living organisms in the ecosystem and these relationships link them to help with their survival.

Lab #3
Topic: Cells
Aim: To differentiate between plants and animal cells
Apparatus: Pencil, Ruler, Blank Paper

Discussion: Specimen 1 represents a plant cell whole Specimen 2 an animal cell. Both cells are similar in many ways. They both :-

1. Have a cell membrane surrounding the cell 2. Contain a nucleus 3. Contain endoplasmic reticulum and 4. Have cytoplasm and 5. Contain mitochondria

Both cells are also different in many ways. The plant has a cellulose cell wall outside the cell membrane, while the animal cell has no cell wall. The plant cell has a chloroplast while the animal cell has no chloroplast. The plant cell has a very large vacuole, containing cell sap while the animal cell has only small vacuole. The plant cell has starch granules but the animal cell doesn’t have starch granules, but sometimes many have glycogen granules. The plant cell is often regular in shape while the animal cell is irregular in shape.
If the plant and animal cell were to be placed in a dilute solution, both specimen/cells would swell. However, the plant cell would not burst because it is surrounded by a cell wall which is very strong and it stops the cell wall membrane from bursting. If both cells were for a while the animal cell would also take in water and will eventually burst.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that plants and animals cells have structures which are similar and structures which are different.

Lab #4
Topic: Diffusion
Aim: To demonstrate diffusion in a liquidizing potassium permanganate
Apparatus: Spatula, water, beakers, potassium permanganate, crystals.
Method: with the aid of a spatula, a few crystals of potassium permanganate were added to the bottom of the water in a beaker, and were left to the observed.
Observation: after the potassium permanganate crystals were first added to the water. Inside the beaker it settled at the bottom of the beaker. A few minutes later the crystals evaporated or diffused and the bottom of the beaker was dark purple and the top of the water was light purple. After a long period of time the potassium permanganate crystals were evenly distributed throughout the water in the beaker, resulting in all the mixture in the beaker being purple and resulting in the formation of a homogenous mixture.

Diagrams:

Beaker Beaker Water KMnO4 KMnO4 Crystals KMnO4 Crystals BEFORE DIFFUSION AFTER DIFFUSION

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIFFUSION OF KMnO4 CRYSTALS IN WATER
Discussion: Diffusion is the spread of particles through random motion from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration. In the water the particles moved more freely because molecules and ions tend to move freely when freely when they are in a solution. When they can move freely molecules tend o spread themselves out as evenly as they can. As in the experiment the potassium permanganate particles started to move more freely and spread from an area of high concentration in the potassium permanganate crystals to an area of low concentration in the water, which resulted in the color purple being gradually spread through the water and an equilibrium was reached at the end of the experiment

Conclusion: It can be concluded that potassium permanganate crystals diffuse in water.

Lab #: 5
Topic: Osmosis
Aim: To demonstrate osmosis using potatoes
Apparatus: Irish potato, brown sugar (cane sugar), spatula, Petri dish, water, knife
Method: with the aid of a knife, a medium sized potato was peeled and cut into halves. A level bottom was then created on each potato half. The centre of each potato half was then scooped out carefully, to avoid boring the bottoms or the sides. Half cup of beaker was then placed in two dishes. One dish was labeled A and the other B. Two to three teaspoon of cane sugar was added to one half of the potato cup and was placed in dish A, while the other half of the potato cavity was left empty and placed in dish B. The experiment was then left for half of an hour and all observations were recorded.

Observation: it was been observed that after both potato cups were placed in the dishes containing water, the particles of sugar which was in dish A, started to dissolve, while the other potato cup in dish B remained the same. After a long period of time all the cane sugar in dish A had dissolved and the water in the dish had decreased and only a small amount of water was seen in the potation dish B. The water level didn’t seem to change.

Diagrams:

Discussion: Osmosis is the movement of solvent particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane. In potato A the water diffused into the potato cells because the cell solution is more concentrated than the water. The water level falls as a result of the movement of the water from the dish into the potato cup. Also the water then diffuses into the concentrated sugar solution because the sugar solution was more concentrated than the cell solution. In potato B the water diffused from the dish into the potato cells because the cells were of a higher concentration than the water.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that osmosis can be demonstrated using potatoes and cane sugar.

Lab #: 6
Topic: Photosynthesis
Aim: To identify parts of a dicotyledonous leaf
Apparatus: Pencil, Rubber, Ruler, Blank Paper, dicotyledonous leaf
Diagram:

Discussion: Externally the dicotyledonous leaf is seen to be composed of petrol, lamina and the veins. The petiole is the narrow stalk that attaches: 1. The leaf to the stem. It continues with the veins of the stem. It holds the leaf at an angle which depends on the plant. This allows most of the leaves of the plant to be exposed to as much light as possible. The veins:- These are important for a) Transporting the water and minerals needed to all parts of the leaf (xylem veins)

b) Transporting manufactured food substances from the leaf (phloem leaf)

c) Supporting the leaf and helping to hold the lamina open so that the whole surface is exposed to the light. The lamina (leaf blade) is green and wide, and provides the large surface area for photosynthesis to take place. The midrib or main vein that branches off from the stem through the centre of the leaf

Lab #: 7
Topic: To test a leaf for starch
Aim: Beakers, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, large test tube, test tube holder, white tile, green leaf
Chemicals: Alcohol, Water, iodine
Specimen: hibiscus leaf
Method: a hibiscus leaf was placed in a beaker of water and was boiled for 3 minutes. The leaf was then removed from the boiling water was placed in a large test tube containing alcohol. The test tube with the leaf and alcohol was then placed in a beaker of water and was allowed to boil until all the chlorophyll was removed. After boiling and was dipped into hot water. The leaf was then placed on a white tile and a few drops of iodine was added to it. Observations were then recorded.
Diagrams:

Observation: When the leaf was removed from the boiling water it was soft. During boiling water is soft. During boiling the alcohol changed from colorless to green and the leaf changed from dark green to light green. After the leaf was removed from the alcohol it became brittle. When the leaf was placed in the water again it became soft. The leaf turn to a blue color after iodine solution was spread all over it.
Discussion: The leaf was placed in boiling water initially to break down the cell membranes. The leaf was placed in alcohol to remove the chlorophyll because it makes it easier to identify starch and to observe the colour changes. The test tube of alcohol contain the leaf was placed in a water bath because alcohol is flammable, boils easily and can explode and cause serious damages. The leaf was placed in warm water again to loosen it from being brittle. A white background was used so that the observations and colour change could be more visible. The blue-black colour seen indicates that starch is present.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that the leaf contained starch, because the leaf turned to a blue-black color when the iodine was applied to it.

Lab #: 8
Topic: Animal Nutrition
Aim: To investigate the effects of amylase
Apparatus: measuring cylinder, test tube, beaker, Bunsen burner
Method: 60 cm3 of water was measured. 20g of starch was measured and was mixed with water in a beaker. Two test tubes were labeled A & B. The contents of the beaker were divided test tubes A & B. 6g of amylase was measured and was added to test tube A. It was then left to stand undisturbed for 1 hour. After the 1 hour the contents of test tubes A was divided into two test tubes labeled C & D. the contents of test tube C was tested for reducing sugar and the contents of test tubes D was tested for starch. The contents of test tube B was divided equally into 2 test tubes labeled E & F. The contents of test tube E was tested for starch and the contents of F were tested for reducing sugar. A few drops of iodine were added to test tube 1.
Diagrams:

Observation: TUBE | RESULTS | | | Tube C | Brown | Tube D | Orange-Red Precipitate | Tube E | Blue-Black | Tube F | Blue |

Discussion: Digestion is the process by which animals break down complex food substances into soluble ones which they can use. An enzyme is a special protein which alters the rate of a chemical reaction. Amylase is important because it break down the starch to maltose then glucose (2hrs). Tube C gave a negative result for the testing of starch because the starch would have been broken down to maltose by the enzyme amylase. Test tube D gave a positive result for the testing of reducing sugar because the amylase would have been broken down the starch to maltose then glucose so when the benedicts solution was added an orange-red precipitate was formed. Test tube E gave a positive result when testing for starch because the solution changed to blue-black since there was no amylase present to convert the starch. Test tube F gave a negative result because starch is a complex sugar and not a simple sugar.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that amylase has an effect on starch.

Lab #: 9
Topic:
Aim: To test for various food nutrients
Apparatus: Bunsen burner, test tubes, beakers, cheese, starch, glucose, sodium hydroxide, copper sulphate, benedicts, solution, iodine solution, alcohol (Ethanol), oil, Hydrochloric Acid

Result: FoodSubstrates | Test | Method | Observation | Inference | | | | | | 1. Sucrose | Non-Reducing Sugar | A few drops of Hal were added to 1cm3 of sucrose solution in a test tube. The mixture was then placed in a hot water bath for 3 mins two drops of NaHCo3 was the added to the sucrose solution until effervescence stopped taking place benedicts solution was then added to the mixture the was heated in a water bath for about 3 mins | An orange precipitate was formed in the mixture after it was boiled with benedicts solution | The orange colour indicates that sucrose is a non reducing sugar | 2. | Protein | 2 cm3 of cheese crushed in water and was added to a test tube. 2cm3 of dilute NaOH was then added to the mixture. A few drops of CuSO4 was also added to the mixture and it was observed | The mixture changed to a purple colour | The colour change indicates the presence of protein | 3. Corn Starch | Starch | 2 cm3 of starch suspension was poured in a test tube then a few drops of iodine solution was added to it, and was observed | After the iodine was added to the mixture, it changed to a blue-black colour | The blue-black colour indicates that starch was present | 4. Glucose | Reducing Sugar | 2 cm3 of benedicts’ solution was added to glucose solution. The mixture was put to boil in a hot water mixture for 3 minutes and was observed | Formed in the mixture | Indicates that the presence of a reducing sugar was there | 5. Oil | Emulsion | 1 cm3 of oil was added to 2 cm3 of alcohol in a test tube. 2 cm3 of water was measured in a measuring cylinder. It was then added to the alcohol and was added to the mixture. It was shaken and carefully observed | The mixture had a milky appearance | The milky appearance indicated that fat was present |

Conclusion: It can be concluded that sucrose is a non-reducing sugar; cheese contain protein, corn starch contain starch.

Lab #:10
Topic: Transport in plant
Aim: To investigate the transportation of water in plant
Apparatus: Pencil, Paper, Knife
Method: A beaker was half filled with water and then a few crystals of KMnO4 were placed in the water. The plants root system was cut off from the balsom plant and was placed upright in the potassium permanganate solution for several hours. The plant was removed and a piece of stem was cut and placed under a microscope. Observation was recorded.
It has been observed that when the plant was taken out of the beaker, there were streaks of purple running through the stem. When the stem was cut some sections were seen coloured purple. They were located towards the edge of the stem.
Diagrams:

Discussion: there were certain features which made the balsom plant suitable for this experiment, because it was a plant, the stem was pale which made it easier to locate the streaks of purple and it was succulent. The coloured purple pigment was seen towards the edge because it was there the vascular bundle was located. The vascular bundle consists of the xylem and the phloem vessels. The xylem vessels are responsible for the transport of water and minerals to other parts of the plant that need it. The structure of xylem vessel make it suitable for the function because it has a long drainpipe made of many hallow cells joined end to end which ran from the root up through the hallow tube to parts of the plants that need it. The walls of the xylem vessels are made of cellulose and lignin, which is very strong helping the plant to keep upright. The phloem vessels are responsible for carrying foods materials which the plant has made. The structure of the phloem vessel makes it suitable for this function because it has serve tube which are cells with their end walls have not completely broken down, has a companion cell which supplies the sieve tube element with some of their requirements.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that water and food materials travel through the xylem and phloem vessels/tissues by osmosis.