...101 Section 7 Sharjah Museum The Sharjah Museum of Islamic Civilization is a museum in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. The museum, established in 2008, cover up Islamic civilization for over 5,000 objects from the Islamic world. Items include carvings, calligraphy, ceramics, glass, coins, manuscripts, metalwork, and scientific devices. This Museum is very able to be seen because of its large size and golden dome. It was originally a traditional souq and it is situated in the historical centre of Sharjah on the Majarrah Waterfront. One section of the museum which is donated to the Islamic architecture, there was a well done replica of the Hagia Sophia. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, On 29 May 1453, Mehmet II, conquered Constantinople after a 54 day siege. He directly went to the ancient Byzantine cathedral of Hagia Sophia. When he saw a gentleman slashing the stones of the church and uttering that this was a temple for infidels, Mehmet II ordered the looting to be stopped and the church to be converted into a mosque. In addition, in another segment of the museum we were shown some scientific instruments. Astrolabe was one of them. In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (salat). In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, prayer, Salah, Qibla...
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...Charlemagne’s Achievements Charlemagne had many significant achievements during his reign in the Holy Roman Empire. One of his greatest achievements was his military conquests. He built an empire greater than any other since ancient Rome. Charlemagne led his armies against enemies in lands surrounding the kingdom. He fought Germanic tribes and Lombards in Italy. He conquered new lands to the east and the south. He was the first leader who was able to finally reunite Western Europe since the Roman Empire. Charlemagne also became the most powerful king in Western Europe. Through his many conquests, he spread Christianity, the religion in which he felt deeply devoted. Charlemagne’s foremost religious accomplishment was spreading Christianity throughout his empire. During the conquests, Christian priests traveled with Charlemagne’s armies. When he conquered a town or country, the priests were directed to convert the people to Christianity. Charlemagne forced conquered people to convert or be tortured to death. Most people did not resist being converted. Charlemagne essentially helped the Roman Catholic Church by spreading Christianity to vast territories. Throughout his reign, Charlemagne cooperated with the church and made it very powerful. Pope Leo III wanted Charlemagne to continue to protect the church and its lands. Therefore, in 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the Roman Emperor. Charlemagne also had some important cultural achievements. He promoted...
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...How far was pre conquest England a prosperous and well governed kingdom I believe that pre-conquest England was a rather well governed and somewhat prosperous kingdom. The countries system of writs; the division of land and the hierarchy as well as the coinage, trade, towns and frequent invasions all suggest that pre-conquest England was prosperous and well-governed. However, the possible threat to the king of the Earls and the countries comparatively undeveloped economy all suggest as less prosperous, more unstable England. My opinion is that they were given a good image due to how well they dealt with the invasion of the Scandinavians and their introduction of Danegeld it showed how wealthy and organised the kingdom was and how they could deal with all that tax. The land was divided into several parts. Primarily, the realm was divided into four earldoms (Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia and Northumbria) each of which was controlled by an Earl. These Earls were incredibly powerful. Each earldom was further divided into shires (like modern-day counties) hundreds and hides. Each level of this hierarchy had its own leader / representative, such as the sheriffs managing each shire under the Earls. This system demonstrates that there was a very clear hierarchy in pre-conquest England; which would have made the country far easier to manage and well governed because each division of land would have a local lord to manage it. I believe that it shows that Britain had a well devised...
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...Throughout history there have been numerous counts of individuals who have seemingly sprung from nowhere and ravaged prosperous empires. Attila the Hun is no different. To most people, he is merely known as a mindless barbarian. Nothing about the man himself, his world, or his significance is ever discussed, which detracts from the influential person that he was. There was so much more to him than mere barbarism. Attila’s power derived from his astonishing character. He was brutal and arrogant, but also was able to gain the support of millions with his brilliance. The Huns thought him semi divine, Goths and other barbarians adored him, and educated Westerners were proud to serve him. Not only was he a powerful leader, but also a canny politician. With his vast array of qualities, Attila played a significant role in Europe during his lifetime and very nearly altered the course of its future. By becoming such a prominent figure in such a short period of time, it is a disgrace to his legacy that people do not know more about Attila the Hun other than the fact that he was a savage. This portrayal of him in itself does not do him justice because he truly was so much more. The story of Attila begins in Mongolia, which has been the progenitor of great and violent leaders. Though his origins are in question, with a certain amount of empirical evidence it has been popularly concluded that Attila belonged to a group of Mongolian or Turkic nomadic tribes from northeastern China and Mongolia...
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...aristocracy. He was head of state, next to God, and educated. This groomed his major god complex and intolerance of non-believing heathens. He wanted to expand papal ideology, authority, and leadership to southeastern Europe; and he cunningly executed his plan with a little side of “à la hidden agenda”. One might ask what this cached agenda was? It was, simply, one thing, the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the known world. And the pedantic Emperor Alexios I would unknowingly play a gargantuan role in this dance of lethal, religious bureaucracy. One of the first responsibilities Pope Urban II felt implored to take on was healing the schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Byzantine Empire. Alexios I wrote a letter of aid to Pope Urban II asking for help to seize Byzantium back from the Seljuk Turks. The Pope saw this as a reciprocated win: Pope Urban II would be able to send the malicious; murderous; and thieving European knights and peasants to fight on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. If the knights and peasants did so, they would be resolved of all sins and allowed into Heaven. They were interfering with the Roman Catholic Church, so the...
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...century when King Abas I was still reigning. It was founded almost at the same time with the Sanahin, another nearby monastery. Haghpat Monastery is a medieval monastery which was built by the Byzantines as a monastic complex in Haghpat, Armenia. The village Haghpat, where the monastery takes its name from, lies on plateau in region of Gouark. This plateau is dissected by deep cracks which were formed by the Debed and Pampak Rivers. Unlike other plateaus in Armenia, it has plenty of water and an abundance of vegetation. The book of Documents of Armenian Architecture says “In this natural setting, it is to be framed the simple, substantial volumetric massivity of the buildings of Haghpat built (as a typical in Armenian architecture) with local stones, such as stuff or eruptive rocks, these contributing to give an absolute homogeneity to the landscape. This process of communion with nature, springing maybe from a remote ancestral feeling of respect and almost veneration for one’s land intended as a mother, in whose “womb” one seeks for protection causes sometimes the buildings to compenetrate the landscape” . Besides, Haghpat Monastery catches the sight of the Pampak River in Northern region of Armenia that has boundaries with Georgia. The Byzantines did not establish it on a peak, but a verdant highland was chosen to build, because halfway of hillside is easier to afford protection and hiding from prying people than pinnacle. This situation not only shows both...
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...In the year 637 the armies of Islam lead by the Caliph Omar conquered the city of Jerusalem, the center of the Christian world and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. The city's Muslim masters exhibited a certain level of religious tolerance. No new churches were to be built and crosses could not be publicly displayed outside church buildings, but the pilgrims were allowed to continue their treks to the holiest shrines of Christendom. The situation remained stable for over 400 years. Then, in the latter part of the 11th century, the Turks swarmed westward out of Central Asia overrunning all that lay in their path. Jerusalem fell to them in 1076. Reports of robberies, beatings, killings, degradation of holy sites and the kidnapping for ransom of the city's patriarch made their way back to Europe. To the Europeans the Holy Land was now in the smothering grip of the Infidel and something must be done. In response, Pope Urban II called a conference at the city of Clermont, France in 1095, concluding the eight days of deliberation with one of history's most influential speeches. Mounting a lofty scaffold, the Pope exhorted the assembled multitude to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the Infidel and assured them that God would absolve them from any sin associated with the venture. His words fell on receptive ears as the crowd responded with cries of "It is the will of God!", "It is the will of God!". The Crusades had begun. Since the 11th century, the city economy in Western Europehas...
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...* Question 1 0 out of 0.2 points | | | What is Rashid al-Din known for? | | | | | Selected Answer: | B. The only staunchly Jewish official in the Mongol Empire | Answers: | A. The military leader that brought down the Mamluks | | B. The only staunchly Jewish official in the Mongol Empire | | C. Policies that reversed the relationship between China and Iran | | D. The leader who shifted the ideological basis of the Mongol Empire in Iran from Chinggis to an emphasis on Islam | | | | | * Question 2 0 out of 0.2 points | | | What did Pope Gregory VII seek to do in the investiture controversy? | | | | | Selected Answer: | B. To ensure that all tithes would be paid directly to the papacy | Answers: | A. To start a rebellion among German princes against the Spanish monarch | | B. To ensure that all tithes would be paid directly to the papacy | | C. To take power away from monarchs in appointing church leaders | | D. To reestablish the church's authority in all matters of doctrine | | | | | * Question 3 0 out of 0.2 points | | | Who were the lowest in the social hierarchy in Yuan China? | | | | | Selected Answer: | C. Europeans | Answers: | A. Southern Chinese | | B. Muslims | | C. Europeans | | D. Mongols | | | | | * Question 4 0.2 out of 0.2 points | | | In which country did Pope Urban urge the people to force out all Muslims? | | | | | Selected Answer: | C. Spain...
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...CHAPTER 9 – Test Bank Multiple-Choice Questions 1. The “Middle Ages” in Western Europe includes which of the following time periods? a. the beginning of the Early Christian period through the 13th or 14th centuries b. the end of the Roman Empire through the Byzantine period c. the beginning of Byzantine period through the end of the Roman Empire d. A.D. 300–A.D. 1600 Answer: a 2. The new religion that entered Europe in the 8th century was a. Buddhism. b. Hinduism. c. Islam. d. Judaism. Answer: c 3. Which of the following cultures influenced Islamic art? a. Byzantine b. Archaic Greek c. Early Christian d. both the Byzantine and Early Christian Answer: d 4. The Christian recovery of Moorish strongholds was called the a. Reformation. b. Rebellion. c. Revolution. d. Reconquest. e. Renaissance. Answer: d 5. Which is true? a. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 622. b. Muhammad claimed to be the son of Allah. c. The Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. d. Muslims are required to pray six times a day. Answer: c 6. The hadj refers to a. the Islamic calendar. b. a pilgrimage. c. a leader. d. a mosque. Answer: b 7. Jihad is a a. religious sentence. b. priest. c. holy book. d. holy war against sin, in oneself and in the world. Answer: d 8. Muslims must pray a. in a mosque. b. facing west. c. facing Mecca. d. facing a qibla. Answer:...
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...http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-byzantine-art.htm - Source C Byzantine paintings and icons are often recognized for their relatively two-dimensional representations. The emphasis of the artists was not on realism but on forms that could be easily identified to transmit stories from the Bible and Christian history. In this style, painted figures often look stiff and awkward. In some paintings, the subjects appear to be weightless, floating in golden ether. Typically rich in color, Byzantine artists often used deep gold, blues and greens. The use of gold expressed the glory and richness of the faith. Bright colors helped make figures in paintings and mosaics identifiable from a distance. In secular art, those colors helped to distinguish the ranks of the subjects being depicted. For many Byzantine pieces, those colors have withstood centuries of exposure and remain vibrant today. http://archaeology-travel.com/photo-album/byzantine-mosaics-in-the-art-institute-of-chicago/ Mosaic traditions in the Middle East begin in late Antiquity, and one of the largest and best preserved Roman mosaics is the now well-travelled Lod Mosaic found not that long ago in Israel. From the fifth century on, from Syria to Egypt mosaics were used to decorate both religious and secular, public buildings. The tradition comes to an end in the eighth century, after the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750: churches fell into disrepair and were later destroyed. The only surviving examples are...
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...scorn an era that they found to be very difficult to survive in. The Dark Ages can be referred to the entire time of the Middle Ages from 500-1500 A.D. or mostly for the early Middle Ages from 500-1000 A.D (Curtis, 1992) (O'Sullivan, 2012). It is also commonly referred to the period of time that accompanied the fall of the Western Roman Empire. When the Western Roman Empire was destroyed, unknowingly many people were going to begin to engage in a practice and experience devastating changes in their lives. Fewer career opportunities, literacy, and education were just the beginning of the fall. Cities then became smaller in size because the Roman Empire wasn’t able to provide the Roman tax revenues to maintain the services. Society inadvertently prepared to emerge in modernity through the preservation of classical literature and scripture. Over time education and literacy was mostly offered to the ministry. Christianity itself remained to spread East throughout the lands. During this time, most of the old crafts and arts were destroyed or lost. During the time known as the dark ages the population was declining. After the Roman Empire buckled, many people became infected with the plague that had broken out and these people experienced climate changes that eventually reduced the growth of cultivation. Tons of lives were lost during this time. The population of people turned poor and resulted...
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...had obliterated the Roman Empire in the West. The wisdom of the lost Empire was nothing more than a memory. The Crusades offered endless opportunity and provided exposure the knowledge, culture, and resources that fueled the European progression into the Renaissance; a fortuity that shifted both cultural and religious power in the modern world. By the end of the 10th century, Western Europe was destitute. The inhabitants could not farm their land properly, and soon a cycle of famine, flood, and disease began to dictate the lives of the people. The only surviving institution was the Western Church in Rome. Roman popes soon began to challenge the Byzantine emperors for ultimate control of the church. Tension grew between the two branches of Christianity, which lead to cultural, theological, and irreconcilable differences between the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe and the Greek Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire (Stalcup, 2000). This event, known as the East-West Schism in 1054, was a precursor to the Protestant Reformation (Stalcup, 2000). Meanwhile, a holy war in Spain between Christian Europeans and Muslims terrorized the outskirts of Rome during the tenth and eleventh centuries. Western Europe became very accustomed to religious war as battles between themselves and against Muslims seemed to plague the Medieval Era. Finally, a plea for help came from the Byzantine Empire. A Turkish clan, named the Seljuks, had invaded Byzantine territory in Asia Minor and...
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...A. LIMBA, VORBIRE, LIMBAJ; ACT DE LIMBAJ; MACROACT DE LIMBAJ;COD DE LIMBAJ; COMPETENTA Dintre numeroasele sensuri ale termenului “limba” ne intereseaza cel ce desemneaza un ansamblu de sisteme legate unele de altele; aceste sisteme sunt formate din unitati cum ar f i sunetele, fonemele, morfemele, lexemele, cuvintele. Limba intervine ca “mediator intre doua zone amorfe: pe de o parte, expresia sonora si, pe de alta parte, continutul notional. De aceea, limba este considerata o forma si nu o substanta, o conventie adoptata de o comunitate umana in care functioneaza ca sistem de semne si ca institutie sociala71”. Limba reprezinta nivelul istoric al limbajului (E. Coseriu). Din aceasta perspectiva, limbajul reprezinta “institutia limbii, ca institutie sociala co muna tuturor subiectilor care o vorbesc, si a discursului, ca realizare individuala a vorbirii in texte sau mesaje concrete.72” Spre deosebire de limba, vorbirea are un caracter individual si variabil, iar pentru unii lingvisti (Saussure) vorbirea este echivalenta cu discursul. Aptitudinea pe care o au locutorii unei limbi de a produce si intelege un numar nelimitat de fraze diferite se numeste competenta (Chomski73). Acestei competente gra maticale i se adauga o competenta pragmatica axata pe regulile ce permit unui subiect sa interpreteze un enunt prin raportare la un context particular. Acestei competente pragmatice i se subordoneaza legile discursului. Etnografia comunicarii a introdus...
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...The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire is the eastern Greek portion of the Roman Empire, sometimes termed the Later or Eastern Roman Empire. The Byzantine Greeks presented themselves as Romans and their Empire as the Roman Empire. They perceived themselves as the prolongation of the Roman Empire and on no account utilized the term "Byzantine" to present themselves (Frucht, 2004). For the reason of administration, Diocletian (who ruled about 284-305) segmented the dominion of the empire among four emperors. He administered the eastern part of the empire (McMeans & Teacher Created Resources, 2010). The Empire was reunified in 324 when, conquered all his foes, and became the dominant authority of the entire empire. The Byzantine Empire may then be dated to Constantine's development of a second capital; that he modelled on Rome, at Byzantium (Frucht, 2004). So from the establishment of this city as a second Rome, the division of east from west was developed, and the east soon came out as the prevailing half. In 330, Constantine the Great relocated the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople. There were a few reasons for that; one was that the city was a splendid defensive position. Secondly it approached the wealthy Eastern cities of the Empire and was close to the Military outposts edge with the Empire's principal rival, Persia (Frucht, 2004). Constantine also endorsed the initiation of Christianity from Constantinople. The eastern section of the Empire talked Greek...
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...RAMIFICATIONS OF THE PAPACY’S POWER IN ROME Church History 301 April 20, 2014 Ramifications of the Papacy’s Power in Rome The papacy – the office held by the pope as head of the Catholic Church - gained great power from the sixth through eighth centuries, and there are several reasons for this surge in influence. Starting around 590, Pope Gregory I sought to convert Teutonic invaders to Christianity. Islam was also in play, as it had taken over most of Asia and Africa. According to Earl Cairns, by trying to win Teutonic tribes to Christianity, the medieval church “…further centralized its organization under papal supremacy and developed the sacramental-hierarchical system characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church.” In addition, the church had started with Christ, who made Peter the first Pope in Rome. Hence, it was evident that this would be fitting for the location of the papacy. Jesus had given Peter the keys to the kingdom, asserting that Peter was the rock on which he would build his church (Matthew 16:18-19). Basing the Church in Rome enabled close coordination of political and ecclesiastical leadership, especially since it was still under Roman rule. Another factor, which gave the Roman church its authority, was Damascus I (366-384), who called the church in Rome the apostolic see and named himself pontifex maximus, a name once held by the emperor of Rome. This elevated the authority of the church in the minds of Christians, and it elevated the political...
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