...Cancer is a mutation within a DNA strand that usually causes growths and abnormal cells. The earliest recorded form of cancer dates back to 3,000 B.C. in ancient Egypt. The word cancer originated from Hippocrates, a great Greek physician. He used the terms carcinoma and carcinos to describe tumors. The term was later translated into the Latin word cancer by a Roman physician named Celsus. There are several forms of cancer that can be acquired and/or inherited. One such form that can be obtained by both means is skin cancer. There are four kinds of skin cancer thus far. These include Basal Cell Carcinoma, Dysplastic Nevi, Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Melanoma. There is also another form although not considered cancer but can develop into cancer it if not treated. These lesions, known as Actinic Keratosis, can be scaly and are caused by the ultraviolet rays emitted from the sun. Basal Cell Carcinoma, or BCC, is the most frequently occurring form of skin cancer in the United States. BCCs are often caused by intense sun exposure. They usually resemble open sores, scars, bumps or red patches and form on the epidermis from basal cells. Another common skin cancer is Squamous Cell Carcinoma, or SCC for short. Squamous Cell Carcinoma appears in the squamous cells that make up most of the upper layer of the skin. They are abnormal cells that have an uncontrollable growth and usually resemble open sores, warts or red patches that could bleed or crust. Just like Actinic Keratosis, is caused...
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...Female * Colleague with breast cancer, gave a blood sample for gene-testing, had a mutation in the BRCA-1 gene. * Her sister had breast cancer at the age of 36. * Her father’s family has a history of breast cancer. Step III – IV - Problem Sentence * * Mrs. K, a 42-year-old woman, is worried about a possibility of having breast cancer due to her family history. Step V - Learning Objectives * What is breast cancer? * Age of occurance. * Causes and symptoms. * How can you treat cancer? * Is it important to do a genetic test? STEP VI/VII – Individual Research & Report Breast cancer is cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast. There are two main types of breast cancer: * Ductal carcinoma starts in the tubes (ducts) that move milk from the breast to the nipple. Most breast cancers are of this type. * Lobular carcinoma starts in the parts of the breast, called lobules, which produce milk. In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast. Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive. Invasive means it has spread from the milk duct or lobule to other tissues in the breast. Noninvasive means it has not yet invaded other breast tissue. Noninvasive breast cancer is called "in situ." * Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues. It may progress to invasive cancer if untreated. * Lobular carcinoma...
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...the war on cancer has evolved in many ways. One way cancer treatment has progressed is the technology of genetic mapping. Genetic mapping is researching one’s genes to identify gene markings for certain diseases. Genes are found in the DNA in each cell that makes up the human body. There are typically 30,000 different genes per cell, and they control every function and aspect of every living organism (“Genetics”). People have forty-six chromosomes in two sets of twenty-three, one set from your father and one from your mother (“Genetics”). Genes control how a person is made by making proteins. Each gene has a "code" for making proteins. This is because each cell needs to perform a certain task. Cancer begins when one...
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...How cancer starts How cancer starts Doctors and scientists now know that each cancer starts with changes in one cell or a small group of cells. Usually, many years before you can feel a lump, or a doctor can see it on a scan, the cells have started to reproduce uncontrollably. You can see from the differences between normal cells and cancer cells that the cancer cell seems to lose a number of vital control systems. This happens because some of the genes in the cell have been damaged or lost. Scientists call this 'mutation'. Genes and mutation Genes are coded messages inside a cell that tell it how to behave. The genes are codes that tell the cell how to make many different proteins. One gene 'codes' for one protein. Proteins are the building blocks that make up a cell. Some proteins act as 'on and off switches' that help to control how a cell behaves. For example, a hormone signal acts on a protein in or on the cell. The protein then sends a signal down a chain of switches. The final signal tells the cell to reproduce by dividing into two. Mutation means that a gene has been damaged or lost. A mutation may mean that too much protein is made. Or that a protein is not made at all. For example, a signalling protein may be permanently switched on. Other proteins, whose job is to control and limit cell division, may be permanently switched off. Something that damages a cell and makes it more likely to be cancerous is called a 'carcinogen'. For example, there are carcinogens...
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...Case Summary: Colorectal Cancer 1) Overview a. Duke’s tumor stage correlates prognosis (Late stage worse prognosis) b. Often leads to hepatic metastasis 2) Adenoma-Carcinoma sequence a. Majority of colon cancer arise from polyps (adenomas) b. Accumulation of genetic mutations / events resulting in uncontrolled growth (dysplasia) c. Over time results in carcinoma 1. APC mutation on chromosome 5 (Early adenoma) 2. K-ras mutation on chromosome 12 3. TGF β, SMAD4 mutation (Late adenoma) 4. P53 mutation on chromosome 17 (Carcinoma) 5. Metastasis d. Evidences 1. Foci of cancer are frequently seen within large polyps 2. Adenomatous (dysplastic) tissue is frequently seen adjacent to large cancers 3. Similar distribution of polyps and cancers within the colon 4. 10-15 year progression of polyp to cancer 5. Reduction of polyps causes reduction in subsequent incidence of cancer 3) Tumorgenesis a. Chromosomal instability 1. Gain of function – oncogenes 2. Loss of function – tumor suppressor genes (APC genes in FAP) b. Epigenetic alteration (microsatellite instability) i. Altered methylation or defective mismatch repair genes resulting in erroneous DNA synthesis Increased mutation rate and microsatellite instability ii. Exemplified by germline mutations causing HNPCC /Lynch syndrome which is characterized by premature and proximal location of colon cancer c. Common pathways 1. Mutations in Ras pathway, Wnt pathway, loss of p53 tumor...
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...Breast Cancer… Is Genetic Screening the Answer? By: Wendy Wilburn Biology 2020 – Biology II Dr. Robinson April 25, 2015 The Great Genetic Screening Debate ABSTRACT Within the past thirty years, researchers have found strong evidence that our DNA or genetic material may be a predictive factor for disease probability. This has lead to the development of genetic testing after the isolation of certain candidate genes. Although predictive genetic screening is only available for a selective number of diseases, its ramifications have become hot topics for debated issues in a broad range of arenas from governmental agencies to religious applications. (1). This debate began in 1993 when researchers isolated the BRCA1 gene, which is associated with the increased risk of developing breast cancer (1). The discovery of this gene leads to hope and speculation for development of a predictive genetic test that could identify women at risk for developing breast cancer. The purpose of my paper is to delve into the positives and negatives of predictive genetic testing, as it is applied to breast cancer precursors. INTRODUCTION Before I go into details about how these genetic tests were developed, I want to first discuss how certain genes can trigger an inactive disease. The human body requires the actions of many proteins working together. For a protein to work properly, an intact gene must be encoded for a specific protein. A mutation describes a gene which has genetically...
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...Running head: CASE STUDY: SKIN CANCER 1 Case Study: Skin Cancer ITT Technical Institute Case Study: Skin Cancer 2 The skin is one of the largest organs in the body in surface area and weight. The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis or subcutaneous fatty tissue. The skin has three main functions: protection, regulation and sensation. The skin is an also an organ of protection, its primary function is to act as a barrier. An individual can get skin cancer one of the risk factors is sun exposure. Sun exposure is known as the major factor associated with all types of skin cancers. There are different types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, known as BCC, squamous cell carcinoma, known as SCC and melanoma. Chronic sun exposure incurred by consistent, repetitive sun exposure, by individuals who work outside is a risk factor. Individuals who go on vacation and spend hours in the sun are at risk, due to their skin has not adapted to the sun, which would be called acute sun expose. Acute sun exposure, depending on the time spent in the sun and your skin type, can result in sunburn. Sunburn is an injury to your skin which can cause pain and/or blistering. Childhood sun exposure may also play an important part in the development of these cancers later in adult life, where children play outside for hours in the summer. (http://www.ccohs.ca) Family history has...
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...BIOLOGY OF CANCER “Cancer affects all of us, whether you’re A Daughter, Mother, Sister, Friend, Coworker, Doctor, and Patient.” Jennifer Aniston INTRODUCTION: A multicellular organism can thrive only when all its cells function in accordance with the rules that govern cell growth and reproduction. Why does a normal cell suddenly become a “rebel,” breaking the rules, dividing recklessly, invading other tissues, usurping resources, and in some cases eventually killing the body in which it lives? To understand how and why cells rebel, we need to understand the normal functions of cell growth and reproduction. From the mid nineteenth century on, research in cell biology, biochemistry, and molecular biology has provided astonishingly detailed information about the molecules and processes that allow cells to divide, grow, differentiate, and perform their essential functions. This basic knowledge of cell biology has also led to practical discoveries about the mechanisms of cancer. Specific molecules that control the progression of a cell through the cell cycle regulate cell growth. An understanding of normal cell cycle processes and how those processes go awry provides key information about the mechanisms that trigger cancer. Loss of control of the cell cycle is one of the critical steps in the development of cancer. Although cancer comprises at least 100 different diseases, all cancer cells share one important characteristic: they are abnormal cells in which the...
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...In cancer research, cancer there are key mutations to each different type of cancer, tumors, aberration, translocations, fusions, indels, or mutations that have popped up somewhere in the human body. Since many of these alterations might never have been observed before and might not necessarily reside in coding regions of the genome, whole-genome sequencing is increasingly seen as the only rigorous approach that can find all the variants in a cancer genome. Among all these alterations are a select few that drive the progression of the disease. Genetic alterations have the potential to impact all cellular processes, including chromatin structure, DNA methylation, RNA splice variants, RNA editing, and microRNA (miRNA) to name but a few. Now, we all hear about tumors. Every individual carries a unique set of inherited germline mutations. As cancer progresses, additional somatic mutations and genomic rearrangements accumulate. These changes can trigger drug resistance and metastasis. Increasing evidence suggests that these...
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...Michaela P. Capulong SC435-02: Genetics November 24, 2015 Unit 3 Final Project Breast Cancer Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer among women and only affect one percent of men. There are multiple risk factors for breast cancer this include genetic abnormalities, unhealthy lifestyle, and environmental. The BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumor-suppressor genes. The mutation and abnormalities of these genes could increase the people risk of breast cancer and also ovarian cancer. Cancer develops in the breast tissue mainly in the milk duct or glands. Usually, it starts with a development of a lump then it will spread to the breast. The treatment depends on the extent of cancer. Surgical procedures such mastectomy and lumpectomy are used to remove the tumor or the whole breast with cancer. Breast cancer can be detected early by undergoing a mammogram and genetic testing. The topic about breast cancer interests me, because I have patients who are diagnosed with this condition. This topic will give me an opportunity to understand and explore how breast cancer can be inherited and treated....
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...Cancer is a genetic disease characterised by deoxyribonucleic acid damage which causes irregular cell growth and changes in the genome (Hanahan and Weinberg 2000). Once cells become infected, the mechanisms that control cellular growth and division stop working and the cells become malignant. This process occurs in somatic cells (Hartl and Jones 2006). Malignant cells have two primary features: firstly, they are not capable of dividing and differentiating and secondly, they attack tissues and move around the body (Atlas of Pathophysiology). There are over one hundred different variations of cancer and within that there are two main subtypes of tumours which can be located in numerous organs (Hanahan and Weinberg 2000). The first subtype is oncogenes, which activates cell division and influences embryonic development whereas the second subtype is tumour suppressor genes, which stop cell division (Atlas of Pathophysiology). A healthy body can normally defend against cancer cells and its spread but once the immune system and other defence mechanisms fail, the cancerous tumours become threatening. A primary cancer is a tumour that exists within an organism during the point when a normal cell converts to a tumour cell (Oppenheiner 2006). The infected tumour then grows and mutates which results in a constant pressure on near-by tissues. Due to the increase in pressure on the tissues, it then becomes the host to the tumour and thus the cancer. Recent research has identified that the...
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...Unit 8 Assignment 1: Mutations and Cancer GE150 Date Due: May 17,2016 Elaine Leppert Lung Cancer Lung cancer, the most common killer cancer in the world, is largely caused by smoking. New results suggest that amongst smokers, some people may be as much as 80% more at risk than others because of their genes. By scanning the entire genomes of lung-cancer patients and healthy controls, research teams identified a region on chromosome 15 that seems to influence the likelihood of developing cancer. People possessing a certain set of mutations at this genetic location are more likely than others to have the disease. Research suggests about 50% of the general population carries a single copy of this cancer gene variant, while another 10% of the population is likely to carry two copies of this set of mutations, raising cancer risk by as much as 80% relative to people with equivalent lifestyles without the cancer-linked gene variant (Hopkin,2016). The most relevant genes in lung cancer include the following: EGFR, KRAS, MET, LKB1, BRAF, PIK3CA, ALK, RET, and ROS1 (El-Telbany & Ma,2012). Lung Cancer and the effects of smoking A typical smoker who refuses or fails to give up has a roughly 15% risk of lung cancer over their lifetime, but with two copies of the genetic variant, this rises to 23%. Researchers disagree over whether non-smokers who possess the genetic risk...
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...Genetic Mutation and Melanoma Malignant melanoma is a potentially serious type of skin cancer due to uncontrolled growth of pigment cells, called melanocytes. A number of genes play a role in melanoma, including inherited genes. Genes produce proteins that perform specific tasks and act as messengers for the cell. It is essential that each gene has the correct instructions or “code” for making its protein so that the protein can perform the proper function for the cell. Many cancers begin when one or more genes in a cell are mutated, creating an abnormal protein. An increased risk of melanoma occurs when specific gene mutations are passed within a family from generation to generation. Inherited melanoma is sometimes called familial melanoma. A person may be born with a genetic mutation in all their cells (germline mutation). Every cell usually has two copies of each gene: one inherited from the mother, and one inherited from the father. Hereditary melanoma follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, in which a mutation needs to happen in only one copy of the gene. This means that a parent with a gene mutation may pass on a copy of the normal gene or a copy of the gene with a mutation. Therefore, a child who has a parent with a mutation has a 50% chance of inheriting that mutation. If a person has a first-degree relative with melanoma, his or her risk of developing melanoma is two to three times greater than the average risk. Mutations in the following...
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...high risk of breast cancer. On the front page of the article, Jolie was praised for her bravery, beauty, and openness announcing her possible operation and why she had it in the New York Times, (USA TODAY 2013). “About one in 500 women have a mutation in genes called BRCA1 or BRCA2, which are involved in repairing genetic mistakes”, (USA TODAY 2013). Jolie was predetermined to test for mutation due to her mother’s death from ovarian cancer at age 56. Women who have mutations in BRCA1 normally develop a 54% chance of breast cancer and by the age of 70, they will have a 39% chance of ovarian cancer. The removal of breast cancer can reduce more than 90% of the risk, despite the fact there is a small risk that cancer may grow in the arm pit. What do BRCA1 and BRCA2 stand for? They stand for breast cancer susceptibility gene 1 and 2, respectively, (NIH). In cells of breast and as well as other tissues, the BRCA1 is expressed, where it helps fix broken DNA, or cells are destroyed if DNA cannot be fixed. DNA cannot be fixed correctly if BRCA1 itself is damaged, and this increases the possibility of cancers. It is the first mutated gene that scientist have discovered in families with countless cases of breast cancer. Also, ovarian cancer is probable in such families. BRCA2 belongs to the tumor suppressor gene family and both genes are involved in the repairing of DNA. For average women who carry the BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations will have a 60% risk of breast cancer compared to a lifetime...
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...histogram below shows the total estimated new breast cancer cases diagnosed in 2003. © 2011 FLVS 2. The results in this table below are from a 2007 study investigating BRCA mutations in women diagnosed with breast cancer. All of the women in the study had a family history of breast cancer. BRCA Mutations in Women Diagnosed with Breast Cancer | BRCA1 mutation | BRCA2 mutation | No BRCA mutation | Total | Number of patients | 89 | 35 | 318 | 442 | Average age at diagnosis | 43.9 | 46.2 | 50.4 | | Preventative mastectomy* | 6 | 3 | 14 | 23 | Preventative oophorectomy* | 38 | 7 | 22 | 67 | Number of deaths | 16 | 1 | 21 | 38 | Percent died | 18 | 2.8 | 6.9 | 8.6 | *A mastectomy is the surgical removal of one or both breasts, either partially of fully. An oophorectomy is the surgical removal of an ovary or ovaries. Things to address in your summary essay: * Describe how mutations lead to genetic variations. * Which appears to be more dangerous: the BRC1 or BRC2 mutation? * Analyze a woman’s risk of dying of cancer if she carries a mutated BRC1 gene. * How do heredity and inheritance relate to the data presented in these charts? * What data would you need to see in order to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of preventive surgeries? * What does the age at diagnosis tell you about the mutation? * Explain how breast-cancer genes are still present in the population, despite cancer-related surgeries and deaths....
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