...Act and Rule Utilitarianism? Why is rule utilitarianism considered by many to be a preferable form of utilitarianism? Clearly describe each version of utilitarianism and explain which you think is to be preferred, and why. The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy defines Utilitarianism as ‘a system of ethics according to which the rightness or wrongness of an action should be judged by its consequences. The goal of utilitarian ethics is to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number’. This is known as the Principle of Utility. There are two main versions of utilitarianism: Classical Utilitarianism and Preference Utilitarianism. Classical Utilitarianism describes utility as pleasure or happiness and looks at the balance between pleasure/happiness and pain/unhappiness. Preference Utilitarianism defines utility as the satisfaction of preferences. Act Utilitarianism vs. Rule Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism is ‘the value of the consequences of the particular act that counts when determining whether the act is right’. It depends on the Principle of Utility for every situation. In other words, it depends on the consideration of the utility value of every distinct action. Rule Utilitarianism ‘determines rightness by finding the value of following a particular rule’. It uses the Principle of Utility in order to select the rules that mostly bring about the most utility. The distinction between the two is simply that Act Utilitarianism is based on...
Words: 1674 - Pages: 7
...Morality? Alexander Raby Introduction Bernard Williams’ article "A Critique of Utilitarianism" has been consistently referred to as the definitive work that refutes utilitarianism.[1] In this article, Williams builds an argument against consequentialist ethical theories in general and utilitarianism specifically. According to Williams, all forms of consequentialism are concerned solely with consequences and are indifferent to the personal integrity of a person, something that is formed by their deepest held moral principles.[2] By forcing a person to reject her conscience and compelling her to perform lesser evils, utilitarianism requires us to discard integrity and should be rejected on these grounds, or at least so says Williams.[3] It can be difficult to understand Williams’ argument without making clear the charges he makes against utilitarianism and why they are considered to be effective attacks against the view. To get the clearest conception possible of the charges made, one should have a firm grasp of the utilitarian position so that one may successfully relate Williams’ criticisms to the theory. First, the utilitarian moral theory must be clearly formulated. Then I will present and clarify some of Williams’ objections against this theory. Finally, I will explore some utilitarian responses to Williams’ objections. Articulating Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a moral theory that is traditionally attributed to Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill...
Words: 5364 - Pages: 22
...Utilitarianism Introduction In this report we would like to explain some of the concepts in moral ethics called utilitarianism. A famous philosopher called Jeremy Bentham introduced this moral concept in the 18th and 19th century. The utilitarian’s describes utilitarianism, as “the actions are morally permissible if and only if they produce at least as much net happiness as any another available action”. Also, this paper we would explain the concepts by John Stuart Mill Theory on utilitarianism. History During the 18th century, there was a revolution in Europe that not only affected the industries, but also government regulations like liberty, equality and fraternity. The result of this revolution helped in creating new modernized Europe. This...
Words: 1498 - Pages: 6
...Explain how moral decisions should be made according to Act utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism. (30) The crucial difference between Jeremy Bentham's Act and John Stuart Mill's Rule Utilitarianism is their usage of the hedonic calculus. Bentham's Act Utilitarianism requires the use of the calculus in every single situation whilst Mill abandons it altogether. For example, a true Act Utilitarian would use the hedonic calculus to decide whether he should eat eggs, waffles or both for breakfast. He would need to input figures for each of the 7 for each of the three options and then choose the ones suits best based on the product of the calculus. This means that Act Utilitarianism takes a lot. Although it takes much longer to get an outcome whatever is that the decision is more likely to be the right one than Rule Utilitarianism, and since even something as dull as breakfast could lead to an important consequence, the added effort might be worth it for example waffles might provide the extra energy that day for an important life changing decision. Rule Utilitarianism as stated does not use the hedonic calculus but instead focusses around rules that generally lead to the greatest good. Parts of Mill’s changes to Bentham’s work however include the addition of quality to pleasure, as Mill put it: "it is better to be an unsatisfied Socrates than a satisfied pig'. In the case of the breakfast example, a Rule Utilitarian may decide that although he likes the taste of waffles more...
Words: 1055 - Pages: 5
...There are number of this moral system but it is beyond the scope of this essay to compare and contrast all but to compare and contrast between deontology the centers on the principles of 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant, And utilitarianism which is the brainchild of philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. As a result, the essay has been organised as follow. Firstly, I will show the merger differences between utilitarianism and deontology. Secondly, I will show the similarities between these ethical systems. Thirdly, I will show the strengths and weaknesses of deontology. Lastly, I will show the strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism and conclude. There are differences that are considered from these moral systems because of different values that moral scholars have about actions and behaviour of individuals. Deontological reasoning refers to duty, which is usually determined without regard to circumstances or consequences. Utilitarian reasoning always considers circumstances and consequences. Utilitarianism it believes that outcomes as a result of an action have a greater value compared to the latter.” It also states that ast so as to produce the greatest possible happiness for the greatest number of people”. As a result, utilitarianism depends on consequentiality. Meanwhile, deontology is another moral theory that is dependent on the Scriptures—which may refer to rules, and moral laws.it is the study of duty and law. Deontology advocates that both the actions...
Words: 1068 - Pages: 5
...INTRODUCTION The link between Utilitarianism Theory and the James Hardie Industries – ‘asbestos’ case has helped me to develop a deeper understanding of the difficult ethical questions asked in business and how corporations respond to those questions using moral philosophies. From the time when the short summary written in regards to the meaning and importance of the term ’responsible business’ in week 2, till today, I have explored various historical, moral, governance and economic aspects of business both domestically and internationally, proliferating my knowledge in regards to responsible commerce. I have come to understand the moral landscape or commercial enterprises which have helped me to appreciate the social and ethical dimensions of the business culture. The analysis of the James Hardie case and the Utilitarianism Theory depicts my knowledge growth. In doing so, I am able to now make more informed business decisions for the benefit of both myself and the wider society. JAMES HARDIE The history of asbestos in Australia and around the world is a history of cover up with companies choosing to ignore the dangers for as long as possible. Asbestos causes significant health problems, most notably lung cancer and mesothelioma, a type of cancer that affects the lining of the heart and lungs. Exposure to the fibres over a prolonged period – such as in the workplace – increases health risks significantly. The mining process was just the first stage of damaging contact...
Words: 1576 - Pages: 7
...* 1. In Mill’s Essay on Utilitarianism, how does Mill refute the notion that, as some ancient Epicureans and even modern ones have held, utilitarianism is just a philosophy of “eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die”? 2. Explain the humorous but meaningful and important phrase of Mill: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”. Even when we as humans are dissatisfied, our knowledge of such higher pleasures makes humans lives better than those of animals. Even when we are feeling a little melancholy, our memories of happiness can keep us going, and the thought of once again being happy can keep us suspended. In difference, animal pleasures are simplistic. Their pleasures include things like eating and mating. While we enjoy these pleasures as well, this is the height of pleasure for animals. They will never experience anything better than a good meal and a hump. 3. Why does Gustafson think utilitarianism might be the ethical approach most suited for business? Utilitarianism may be the ethical approach most suited for business because it helps calculate happiness. In addition, this ethical approach helps keep businesses sane and supports higher aspirations. 4. Now, look at the example given on pp. 80-81 - embellishing the expense report. After applying the 7 considerations criteria to help calculate how much pleasure and pain will result in the decision to cheat on the report, it...
Words: 1009 - Pages: 5
...Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical. He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based upon their consequences. The relevant consequences, in particular, are the overall happiness created for everyone affected by the action. Influenced by many enlightenment thinkers, especially empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume, Bentham developed an ethical theory grounded in a largely empiricist account of human nature. He famously held a hedonistic account of both motivation and value according to which what is fundamentally valuable and what ultimately motivates us is pleasure and pain. Happiness, according to Bentham, is thus a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of pain. Objective Value: Pain & Pleasure and Moral Naturalism For Bentham, morals can be described naturally and scientifically rather than as any duties imposed by a god, but such a description requires an account of human nature. Just as Bentham thinks nature is explained through reference to the laws of physics, and not through appeal to any religious ideas, so human behaviour can be explained by reference to the two natural, primary motives of pleasure and pain; this is the theory of psychological hedonism. There is, Bentham admits, no direct proof of such an analysis of human motivation—though he holds that it is clear that, in acting, all people implicitly refer to it. At the beginning of the Introduction...
Words: 1904 - Pages: 8
...Critically assess the view that utilitarianism is of no use when making decisions about sexual ethics. (35 marks) Utilitarianism is a theory mainly derived and developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stewart Mill. Bentham was headanistic and stated that happiness consisted of pleasure minus pain. This essentially is what makes the ethical theory difficult to use when making decisions about sexual ethics as everyone’s ideas of pain and pleasure varies therefore it is hard to come to a solid decision, especially as sexual acts mostly involve more than one person, this can cause conflict. However, It would not be fair to say that Utilitarianism is of no use at all when making decisions about sexual ethics as it can provide a useful tool when considering such issues in some cases. Although, it seems that if ‘use’ is taken to mean the clarity of decision making in a practical sense, Natural Law would be a better alternative on matters such as contraception as more of a clear response would be provided. A theory’s usefulness depends on your definition. Thus, with different definitions, Utilitarianism’s use can change. One important area of sexual ethics is the issue of contraception. A utilitarian approach may be considered of use when applied to the subject of contraception, when use is defined as fitting in to modern society. Utilitarianism considers the maximising happiness and minimising pain for the maximum number. It must consider the consequences of an action. It can be...
Words: 1446 - Pages: 6
...Utilitarianism and Business Ethics INTRODUCTION Welcome to philosophicalinvestigations - a site dedicted to ethical thinking (rather than one page summaries!!! Though I'm afraid I do add those at exam time - market pressures!). I hope you enjoy this case study which also has a powerpoint that goes with it. There's plenty of other useful material on this site - case studies, handouts, powerpoints and summaries, and also I have written a number of books including best-selling revision guides and a useful book on 'How to Write Philosophy Essays". Click here for details. If you're worried about exams you might at least print out my strengths and weaknesses summaries under each moral theory. I deliberately quote only from my five favourite ethics books, click here to find out which they are - because you might like to buy one of them to supplement your study. Of course, it's important to quote the philosophers themselves in their own words - see my handouts, or for what academics say about them - see the key quotes section under the topic area of each moral theory. And if you'd like to blog on anything in the news send it to me - I'd be delighted to read it and - if it fulfils the criterion of good ethical thinking (!), post it!!!!! Utilitarianism is a normative, consequentialist, empirical philosophy which links the idea of a good action to one which promotes maximum pleasure or happiness, found by adding up costs and benefits (or pains and pleasures). It has two classic formulations...
Words: 2307 - Pages: 10
...response to who obtains medical resources and why does not seem simple. However, some theories have aimed at answering these questions. Stein’s Utilitarianism alongside Nozick’s Libertarianism, for example, set out different plausible perspectives. Although some objections… Utilitarianism...
Words: 1247 - Pages: 5
...drugs for payments of up to $4,500 a month, a warm bed, food, and good medical care. To make sure that these individuals are not exploited, the FDA requires that individuals participating in these tests give their “informed consent” and make a “truly voluntary and uncoerced decision.” (P. No. 73). This creates an ethical issue because people question whether being broke, homeless, and an alcoholic can have an effect on making an uncoerced decision. On the other hand, people would argue that these homeless men were given the chance to become addiction free, they would receive other benefits, and they were helping to get a drug approved that could be used to potentially save thousands of lives. This is a complex case involving an ethical issue, but the utilitarianism theory and rights theory can be applied to...
Words: 2536 - Pages: 11
... “Even at big company, as Apple, said that 91 children under the age of 16 were discovered to be working last year in ten Chinese factories owned by its suppliers. “ The company did not examine the suppliers, and the suppliers squeezed the child labor, finally, the company gets more profit. The ethical dilemma in this essay is that whether it is ethical for a company not to examine if they indirectly use the child labor. I will apply two ethical theories to this ethical dilemma, the Kantian ethics theory and the Utilitarianism theory. In the Kantian ethics theory, he says, “we should do the right thing regardless of reward or loss”, which is core ideas of his ethics theory. Furthermore, in his famous work Groundwork Metaphysics of Morality, he says, “Nothing is good in itself but the good will.” Additionally, in the Utilitarianism theory, it is roughly based on calculating or measuring benefits versus burdens. There are two core philosophers in the Utilitarianism theory, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. I will explain this two theories and how the company fall into the dilemma as follows: Firstly, there is no doubt that it is an unethical matter. As for the Kantian ethics, he thinks there is no relationship between the purpose and ethics; whatever effect of the purpose is content, happy, or kind. We only can do the things with a good will rather than for a special goal. In this dilemma, Apple did not examine whether its suppliers use the child labor or not. However, what...
Words: 1696 - Pages: 7
...Utilitarianism A moral doctrine is something everyone must have to go about making decisions in every day life. One’s moral values dictate his or her choices and ultimately control how the person lives. Of the numerous ethical theories that exist, utilitarianism is one of the most interesting and difficult to understand. While a utilitarian way of living may seem like an attractive existence to some, I believe it has some major flaws. Utilitarianism is a moral theory that states that a decision or action is only morally right if it conforms to the standard of utility. This means that the utilitarian will do something if and only if it produces more pleasure or less pain for all persons affected, than any other choice. This definition is essentially the same as the one for consequentialism, but utilitarianism also includes the theories of hedonism and eudaimonism. These two theories differ in that hedonism holds that pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the only things with intrinsic value, while eudaimonism states that only happiness has intrinsic value, and that happiness is more than just pleasure. Though some of the aspects of utilitarianism are certainly attractive, there is one main flaw to this moral theory. This belief states that the only important factor to be considered when making a decision, is the outcome. Utilitarianism fails to consider the action or motive involved in the choice. These two factors are of the utmost importance in the decision making process...
Words: 727 - Pages: 3
...Mill’s Utilitarianism. John Stuart Mill Higher and lower pleasures Mill rejects a purely quantitative measurement of utility and says: It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognise the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. Mill notes that, contrary to what its critics might say, there is "no known Epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect… a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation." However, he accepts that this is usually because the intellectual pleasures are thought to have circumstantial advantages, i.e. "greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, &c." Instead, Mill will argue that some pleasures are intrinsically better than others. The accusation that hedonism is "doctrine worthy only of swine" has a long history. In Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1 Chapter 5), Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts. The theological utilitarians had the option of grounding their pursuit of happiness in the will of God; the hedonistic utilitarians needed a different defense. Mill's approach is to argue that the pleasures of the intellect are intrinsically superior to physical pleasures. Few human creatures would consent to...
Words: 2010 - Pages: 9
