Under what economic conditions are children living across the United States?
Child poverty and its misfortunes By: Racheal H. Caldwell

A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements of CST5006 – Survey of Research Methodology
Racheal H. Caldwell
May 2013

Address: 22-04 Collier Ave Apt 5H
Far Rockaway NY 11691
Phone: 347-985-6673
Email: racheal_caldwell@yahoo.com
Instructor: Kathy Blaydes

Abstract
The United States economy is going through a phenomenon described as “globalization” of an economy or global competition. A very large part of global competition involves the development of a strong labor force, and this development starts with the nurturing of children (Ozawa, Soo, & Kim 2004). A great challenge lives in the United States and by international standards; the United States has the highest proportion of children in low income families than any other industrialized country (Smeeding, Torrey, & Rain 2002). It is believed that the reasoning for children’s income status being relatively low is due to adults and the elderly. In the proposed research, we will: examine the published research on child poverty that impacts social and behavioral studies and define the scope and nature of problem and discuss strategies for solving this problem. Qualitative and quantitative research approaches will be used to examine diverse perspectives and factors associated with child poverty. In addition, we will summarize key findings of research and different methods used to examine the issue.

Table of Contents 1. Table 1.1 Relative Child Poverty Rates 2. Introduction 3. Academic discipline related to child poverty supported by research and theory 4. Table 1.2 Cumulative Risk Factors 5. Global competition 6. Table 1.3 relationship between family background and educational outcomes 7. Child poverty on a larger scale 8. What is observed in current state relating to child poverty? And available services 9. Qualitative approach & Interviews 10. Economic conditions of state and nature and quality of the states responses to child poverty. 11. Table 1.4 poverty thresholds 12. Strategies for solving child poverty 13. Conclusion 14. References

Table 1.1: Shows how 35 countries compare on child poverty (The United States ranks 34)
A new report by the United Nations Children’s Fund, on the well-being of children in 35 developed nations, turned up some alarming statistics about child poverty. More than one in five American children fall below a relative poverty line, which UNICEF defines as living in a household that earns less than half of the national median. The United States ranks 34th of the 35 countries surveyed, above only Romania and below virtually all of Europe plus Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.

Introduction Childhood poverty is not a unitary problem or experience; it is a complex and interrelated problem that should equally affect all individuals who care about this matter. It is undeniable that children are the fast growing population in the United States and because of poverty, their health; survival and education are greatly compromised. Even though childhood poverty is experienced in both rural and urban areas, it may differ in many respects between American and inner city areas. Childhood poverty has polarized and crippled our society. However, this is not just economically between the haves and the have-nots. There is a strong sense of independence and privacy that society places on the non intervention of family units that are poor and debate abounds to whether or not public assistance should even be given to the poor. What one fails to realize is that in the mix of everything, children are in no position to pull themselves out of poverty and in order for this to happen we must first help the families and parents. Childhood poverty cannot be dismissed as a problem of the children!

Academic discipline related to child poverty: A theory supported by research Research suggests that the attachment formed between a parent and a child predicts the quality of future relationships with teachers and peers (Wainwright 2008) and plays a leading role in the development of social functions such as curiosity, independence, emotional regulation, and social competence (Wainwright 2008). In order for children to grow emotionally healthy, the following are needed: * Safe predictable and stable environments * A strong reliable caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love and guidance * Enrichment through personalized complex activities
It is noted that children raised in poverty are less likely to receive these crucial needs met than their more affluent counterparts and as a result are subject to some grave consequences. There may be a range of deficits that inhibit or slow the production of brain cells, altering the maturation path, and seriously undermining emotional and social development. This in turn will have children predisposed to emotional dysfunction (Gunner 2009). In poor household, parental education is almost non-existent, time is short, and warm emotions are at a premium (Eidelman 2009), all of which are factors that put child development at risk. Low income parents are often overwhelmed by shame, stress, guilt, and a sense of powerlessness. These findings may be passed along to their children in the form of insufficient nurturing, negativity, and an overall general failure to focus on their needs.

Table 1.2 shows that a child who comes from a stressful home environment tends to channel that stress into disruptive behavior at school and be less able to develop a healthy social and academic life (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Cumulative Risk Factors: More Stress = Less Delayed Gratification = More Impulsivity

Global Competition Global competition in the United States has current U.S. policy maker’s initiatives to improve the education system, use test-based evaluation of teachers, and the promotion of competition are misguided because they either deny or set to the side a basic body of evidence documenting that students from disadvantaged households on average perform less well in school than those of their advantaged counterparts (Ladd 2012). Because of misguided and obsolete policy initiatives, it is not directly addressed or stated that because of the educational challenges of disadvantaged children they may likely contribute little and are less likely to contribute in the future. There has been significant research and study after study has demonstrated that there is a strong link between children of low income households and their educational performance. Studies were done using convenience sampling. The studies used different measures of their subjects: socioeconomic status, parent’s educational level, occupation, and employment status. Studies based on longitudinal surveys would include far richer measures of family background (Journal of Policy Analysis & Management). Refer to table 1.3
Trends in Income and Black-White Gaps in Reading, 1943 to 2001 Cohorts
The figure shows that, when first measured in the early 1940s, the gap in reading achievement between children from high- and low-income families was about 0.60 standard deviations. It subsequently more than doubled to 1.25 standard deviations by 2000. These income-based achievement gaps are way too large.

Through the use of evidence based policy making, policy makers must be able to identify ways to reduce achievement and educational attainment gaps between those of the poor and those who are not. A new vision is needed and with that vision must come an energy to reach and re-educate children of poverty (Purdy 2011). In decades to come, children will be the ones to drive future growth and competition. The only way for this to happen is we must evolve, and policy makers need to enforce laws and policies in helping those families of low income and poverty.
Child poverty on a larger scale How poverty may be defined and measured has significant implications for the identification children in need (Southwell 2010). Most discussion of children’s well-being in the United States refers to the recent rises in the rates of their poverty as measured by the official poverty measure. By now the statistics should be quite familiar: children who live in poverty are more likely to suffer diminished physical health, become teenage parents, drop out of school, and less likely to escape poverty as adults (Southwell 2010). The outlook looks extremely depressing for those who live below the poverty line. However, let us just say for some strange reason the poverty line was readjusted or inadvertently displaced, then the depressing outlook concerning children in poverty severely underestimates the severity of this issue. In the United States, children account for 25% of the population and 18% of those live in poverty (U.S Census Bureau 2010). Some debate over the actual definition of what poverty actually is. Researchers and policy makers have long debated over that definition. Poverty is broken down into two concepts: absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty means that individuals have a set of resources that they must attain to reach a certain standard of living threshold (i.e. cost of food, housing, and basic needs). Relative poverty is concerned with how well off an individual is with respect to other members of society at any given time. These societal standards essentially determine some threshold of resources that allow people to afford what is considered “reasonable” standards of living. The current measure of child poverty is measured in absolute poverty. The UDSA conducted the Household Food Consumption Survey to back this measure. Results indicated families that had three or more people spent about 1/3 of the “after bills” income on food. This leaves them with barely anything. It is very important to note how many children do not have their needs adequately met. Further specification is extremely warranted, conceptualizing child poverty as a lack of capability promises to shed light on this deprivation.

What is observed in current state relating to child poverty? And services provided Each day in New York State, children are born with endless potential. For healthy development their successful attainment of physical, social, and emotional skills are essential to their ability to succeed in such a dynamic society. The personal and social consequences of childhood poverty and its influence on healthy development are very costly. It is estimated that poverty in the United States may be as high as $500 billion a year or roughly 4% of the U.S. gross domestic product (Stein 2006). In New York about 40% of the children now live with families at or below the poverty line (appx 700,000 boys and girls) (Stein 2006). The child poverty rates in New York from 1978 through 2006 including rates for children with married and single mothers have increased from 18.3% to 26.4%. Not surprisingly the overall rise in poverty is correlated to a rise in unemployment. It is noted that one in five children (19.9%) in New York lives below the “traditional poverty line (Stein 2006). The depth of this poverty is particularly pertinent since research suggest that it plays a critical role in the extent that child development is compromised. There are programs that can help and address these issues, New York State residents have access to a wide variety of anit-poverty programs designed to support low income families. Furthermore, in several instances, New York expands their eligibility criteria for federally funded program enabling a broader group of children and families to access benefits.

Qualitative Approaches & interviews
Question: How would you describe the level at which states are achieving in addressing child poverty? The number of New Yorkers classified as poor in 2012 increased by nearly 100,000 from the year before raising the poverty rate by 1.3 percentage points to 21 %-the highest level and largest year to year increase since the city adopted a more detailed description of poverty (Roberts 2012). The recession and sluggish recovery has taken a toll on children with more than 1 in 4 children less than 18 years are living in poverty. Families and children are so vulnerable because of this issue. It seems like nothing gets better! Unemployment rates are on the rise and so is poverty. The following question had to be posed regarding poverty: “How would you describe the level at which states are achieving in addressing child poverty?” Here is what people had to say:

Mark Collins a youth advocate: “The rise in poverty rate in children all over especially here in New York are duly noted. Isn’t that why they have stimulus packages to assist?”

Jodi Goldblum an ACS Director: “It is sad that families in other parts of the country have to make unacceptable decisions such as food or no food? Its no wonder why more people around the country are asking for assistance.

Robert Peck a Human Resource Generalist: “We only come together as a country during natural disasters and acts of terrorism, but when we talk about poverty, we all split apart. What is Washington doing?
Based off the answers of the above, it is clear that the rest of the country had an area of opportunity in addressing child poverty. During an interview with the New York Post here is what Mayor Bloomberg said regarding the issue: “Our city’s economy is not stronger than the rest of the country by accident, our success compared to the nation has been a result of sound policy decisions”. (New York Post 2013).

Economic conditions of states and nature quality of the states responses to child poverty

Poor children confront widespread environmental and economic inequities (Aletha 2011). Compared with their economically advantaged counterparts, they are exposed to more family turmoil, violence, separation, and instable and chaotic households. The accumulation of those environmental risks versus a single risk exposure may be an especially pathogenic aspect of childhood poverty. Social resources vary by neighborhood, city, and state quality. Disadvantaged neighborhoods have less social capital than wealthier neighborhoods. That trend holds the same for cities and states. Multiple urban sites with representative samples focusing on: unemployment, percent of individuals in poverty, percent with inadequate housing, and the percent single head of household, were found to have weaker social ties, experience less interpersonal trust, and norms of reciprocity, and perceive lower levels of instrumental support and government aid (Brooks-Gunn 2008). Poorer cities and states have fewer social resources and a diminished capacity for informed social controls. Aletha (2011) states that neighborhood, city, and state disadvantages account for more than 70% of the variance in informed social control across urban areas. However, many researchers advocate active local government responses to poverty and other economic disparities (Lobao 2012). In doing so, an unexplored general question is raised: can local governments themselves influence poverty net of other determinants? This question has been extremely difficult to answer because policy variables have little consistent association with economic disparities. Table 1.4 2012 Poverty Thresholds
A sampling of the poverty thresholds for 2010 is included in the table below. A complete list can be found on the Census Bureau's website (www.census.gov).

Single individual | Under 6565 and over | $11, 344$10, 458 | Single parent | One childTwo children | $15, 030$17, 568 | Two adults | No childrenOne childTwo childrenThree children | $14, 602$17, 552$22, 113$26, 023 | | | | | | |

Strategies for children living in poverty

What is really needed to tackle this issue on poverty is a targeted strategy to end poverty, especially child poverty. However, further progress depends on a big shift that will raise the level of resources invested and widen the scope of anti poverty measures. The governments and policy makers strategy should require for over two million children to be taken out of poverty, this is four times the progress since 2006 (Hirsch 2008). In addition to this, improvement of work incomes is needed. Minimum wage should be higher. There has been little progress on reducing in work poverty and policy tools seem very inadequate and incomplete. It is to be noted that child poverty will not end just based on provision of laws, but on the behavior on individuals, employers, and public bodies. Our behaviors as well as provisional laws will help parents into jobs but also consider factors that could affect their earnings such as: childcare expenses, job flexibility, level of parents educational skills, and how employers will use their skills to create a quality environment. Families, employers, and government officials need to work together to combat child poverty. This partnership needs to deliver improved work routes so that parents can work in a way that complements family life and most importantly provide basic needs to families so they are able to have an adequate foundation, enabling them to avoid hardship and debt.

Conclusion Child poverty refers to the phenomenon of children living in poverty. This applies to orphans, children in poor families, and those with limited resources. There is over an estimated 2.2 billion children worldwide who live in poverty. Therefore this issue should not be taken lightly. A childhood spent in poverty often sets the stage for a lifetime of setbacks. Secure attachments and stable environments are so vitally important to the social and emotional development of young children. Children experience more stress, aggression, isolation, and even deviant behavior because of this issue. So with this being said, childhood poverty, should be everyone’s issue. Through government and a policy for change, we can help to alleviate financial barriers for parents and families to ensure that children do not grow up in these conditions and are able to escape poverty as adults. We must first remember however that childhood poverty should not be dismissed as the problem of the children.

References

Purdy, Mark (2011). Global Competition 2021: Key capabilities for emerging opportunities. Strategy and Future Leadership. Volume 39, Issue 5

Psyche, Southwell (2010). The Measurement of Child Poverty in the United States. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. Volume 19, Issue 4
Stein, Andrew (2006). Children of poverty crisis in New York: Poverty. New York Times (1857-current file) Aletha C(2011). Recession drives surge of poverty. America. Volume 202, Issue 6.
Brooks-Gunn (2007). The effects of poverty on children.
Ladd, Helen (2012). Presidential Address: Education and Poverty: Confronting the Evidence. Journal of Policy & Analysis Management
Journal of Policy & Analysis Management. DOI. 10.1002/pam. Published on behalf of the Association for Public Policy Analysis & Management
Roberts, Sam (2012). New York’s Poverty Rate Rises, Study Finds. NY Times
Labao, Linda (2012). Poverty and Place Across the United States. Do County Governments Matter to the Distribution of Economic Disparities? Ohio State University
Hirsh, Donald (2008). What is needed to end child poverty in 2020. JRF Publications.