...that make all enzymes catalysts. An enzyme is a protein that serves as catalysts of biological reactions converting a substrate into a product. The catalyst can increase the rate of the reaction. A catalyst does not change, or get consumed, during the reaction. A2. Create an original diagram, or series of diagrams with clear labels depicting the enzymatic cycle (lock and key or induced fit model). A3. Create a diagram that illustrates the aE of a reaction in the presence and absence of an enzyme. A4. Explain the reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the first two steps of fructose metabolism in the liver. Fructose in the blood passes through the cell membrane into the liver cell and initiates phosphoralation with fructokinase for the metabolism of fructose. The fructokinase then uses the phosphate and produces F-1-P (fructose 1 phosphate). F-1-P is the substrate for the enzyme Aldolase B. Aldolase B takes the F-1-P and makes DHAP and glyceraldehyde, the products of Aldolase B. The DHAP and glyceraldehyde are intermediates in glycolysis and continue down to make pyruvate which then can make ATP synthesis or fatty acids. (Sanders, J. 2013) A5. Discuss how a deficiency in aldolase B is responsible for HFI. Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (HFI) results from a deficiency of aldolase B activity primarily in the liver, but also in the kidneys and small intestine. If aldolase B doesn’t work, then there is no effect on fructokinase, there is no effect on the enzyme that separates...
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...Zayra Mendivil EXS-340 September 29, 2013 William Kuehl Energy Transfer Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that takes glucose and breaks it down into pyruvate. This anaerobic cycle that can occur in the presence of oxygen or not. It is used to release high energy compounds of adenosine triphosphate, ATP. Glycolysis takes one glucose and results in two three carbon chains of pyruvate, along with a net total of two ATP released. The Kreb, or Citric Acid, Cycle is series of chemical reactions used by aerobic organisms to generate energy following Glycolysis. The process between glycolysis and the start of the Kreb Cycle takes the pyruvate at the end of glycolysis, converts it to acetic acid by removing the C02 and then the acetic acid is combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A. From here the Acetyl CoA is converted to citric acid by removing CoA, hydrogen and electrons are released and then accepted by NAD+ and C02 removed resulting in the remaining structure recombining with CoA. The Kreb cycle involves citric acid being taken consumed and regenerated. Alongside, acetyl coenzyme A is consumed with water, NAD+ reduced to NADH and carbon dioxide produced. The end result of these two pathways is the production of thirty-six to thirty-eight usable ATP from the oxidation of nutrients. Energy metabolism in the body is regulated by three classes of fuel molecules, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Metabolic pathways are organized by chemical reactions through enzymes...
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...Role of Enzymes ¨. Catalysts that help a molecule breakdown faster. ¨. Catalysts speed up or slow down a biochemical reaction by increasing or decreasing the activation energy. Does not change in reaction. ¨. Enzymes bind to a substrate to form the enzyme substrate complex. When bound the enzyme has a specific job it was designed to do. Once the job is done, the substrate has become a product, and the enzyme moves along to the next substrate. ¨. If enzymes were not involved, the reactions would take too long and breakdown would not occur properly. (Enzyme Characteristics) Enzymes ¨. More specifically, enzymes are substrate specific. ¨. Once they find a match the enzyme takes the substrate and creates a product out of it. The product then continues on the pathways to be a substrate for a different enzyme. ¨. If the temperature is up, enzymes work faster. ¨. If the temperature is down, enzymes work slower. ¨. No work occurs if the temperature is too hot. ¨. Aldolase B is an enzyme that breaks fructose down. (Enzyme Characteristics) Aldolase B & HFI ¨. Aldolase B turns Fructose-1-Phospate to DHAP andglyceraldehyde. These two substances then enter glycolysis to make ATP for the body. ¨. If Aldolase B is lacking, fructose can not be broken down, potentially causing Hereditary Fructose Intolerance. ¨. In this process, there is a protein that is missing...
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...molecule and the reduction of another). Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular changes. Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). Bacteria and archaea can also be lithotrophsand these organisms may respire using a broad range of inorganic molecules as electron donors and acceptors, such as sulfur, metal ions, methane or hydrogen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic.[1] ------------------------------------------------- Aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both plants and animals utilize energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). Although carbohydrates,fats, and proteins can all be processed and consumed as reactant, it is the preferred method ofpyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2 Simplified reaction: | C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) | | ΔG = -2880...
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...History Back in the 1840s, the presence of granule-like structures within muscle cells and other cell types were being recognized by several scientists. (Ernster and Schatz 1981) In 1890, Richard Altmann, who was a cytologist, used a dye technique to detect the granules and termed them as “bioblasts.” He speculated that they were the basic units of cellular activity. (Ernster and Schatz 1981) It was in 1898 when Carl Benda gave these bioblasts a new the Greek name “mitochondria” meaning thread granules. Discovery of the mitochondrion however, cannot be limited to just a few people. Over decades of time, many contributions have been made in relation to the properties and functions of the mitochondria. (Ernster and Schatz 1981) This organelle is the “power house” of the eukaryotic cell and is located in the cytoplasm. The mitochondrion requires transcription of several genes associated with the organelle along with translocation, targeting and assembly of proteins. (Hood and Joseph 2004) Mitochondria’s main function is to convert energy into forms that can be used by the cell. Along with generating fuel for the cell’s activities, the mitochondrion functions in a range of other processes including, cell signaling, cell division, cell growth, and cell death. Structure The mitochondrion can have different overall structures depending on the cell type. Most mitochondria appear as rod-like shaped organelles although sometimes they can appear like a branched interconnected tubular...
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...Action of enzymes as catalysts in biochemical processes * Enzymes acts as catalyst and increase the rate of all the chemical reactions. * Enzymes are also described by two properties like all other catalysts. It composed of two main functions. * The first function is that, they increase the rate of chemical reactions by without consumed themselves or undergo any change or alteration in the reaction. . ( Zemitec et,al 2008). * The second function is, they increase reaction rates without changing the chemical equilibrium between the reactants and products. ( Bhagavan et,al 2006). * The reaction between two substrates are catalyzed by enzymes. The enzyme brings a template upon which the two substrates are combined together in the proper position and make them to react each other. Deficiency in aldolase B and hereditary fructose intolerance * Hereditary fructose intolerance is a condition I which affects a humans ability to digest the fructose sugar. The incidence of hereditary fructose intolerance is 1to 2 in 20000 to 30000 individuals in a year worldwide. .( John .R.H 1996) * Hereditary fructose intolerance can be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. The ALDOB gene is responsible for making the aldolase B enzyme. The aldolase B enzyme is primarily seen in the Liver. This helps for the fructose metabolism. This enzyme is responsible for the further step in the metabolism of fructose, which breaks down the molecule fructose-1-phosphate into other...
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...Metabolism Western Governors University Aston Portis 1. All enzymes are catalyst because they cause a chemical reaction to take place faster than it would on its own. It also does not get used during the reaction (Hudon-Miller, 2012). 2. (Hudon-Miller, 2012). 3. (Hudon-Miller, 2012). 4. Fructose is component of sucrose, normal table sugar, along with glucose. Whereas glucose is able to immediately enter into glycolysis, fructose is not. Fructose is broken down via fructokinase into fructose- 1-phosphate. Fructose – 1-phospate then gets converted into DHAP+ glyceraldehyde via aldolase B. DHAP+ glyceraldehyde is used in glycolysis to produce pyruvate that goes into the citric acid cycle to produce ATP (Hudon-Miller, 2012). 5. In aldolase B deficiency the substrate fructose 1- phosphate is unable to produce DHAP+ glyceraldehyde but the fructose is still getting phosphorylated by fructokinase. This causes a buildup of fructose- 1-phosphate. It is not being used in glycolysis or gluconeogenesis. There is a buildup of phosphate which causes the phosphate to get stuck and the free phosphate to be depleted by because of so much is being used by the fructose 1-phosphate. Since our phosphate levels were depleted it slows production of ATP, phosphate is needed in the electron transport chain. Since ATP production has slowed and liver cells are low on energy liver damage can occur which can ultimately lead to liver failure. Fructose-1-phosphate buildup...
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...sub-pathways: - anaerobic stage, Glycolysis - a transition reaction connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle - an electron transport chain Structure of Mithochondrion • double membranes organelle found in almost all living cells • the inner membrane is folded to form little shelves called cristae • the inner space filled with gel-like fluid is called the matrix, containing numerous enzymes • the transition reaction and the krebs cycle occur in the matrix while electron transport chain occurs in the cristae Glycolysis • takes place in the cytoplasm of every living cells • anaerobic stage of cellular respiration • breakdown of glucose to two molecules of 3-carbon compound, pyruvic acid with net gain of ATP molecules and 2 NADH • begins with energy investment step that requires two separate reactions and uses two ATP resulting to two C3 molecules • ends in energy harvesting steps wherein oxidation occurs by the removal of electrons which are accepted by NAD, and the generation of four ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation Transition Reaction: Acetyl coA Formation • serves as a bridge connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle • takes place in the matrix of mitochondrion • each pyruvic acid molecule is split into 2-carbon acetyl group and CO2 with the production of NADH • the acetyl coenzyme A is the high-energy molecule that enters th krebs cycle Krebs Cycle • named after Sir Hans Krebs, German-born...
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...Lydia Hernandez Bio 156 Module 5 Cellular Respiration Cellular Respiration is the process by which cells acquire energy by breaking down nutrient molecules produced by photo synthesizers. (Mc-Graw-Hill, 2014). Oxygen and carbon dioxide are what makes cellular respiration, without it, no animal, human or plants would breathe. Cellular respiration has four phases and that includes: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, preparatory reaction, and electron transport chain. The first phase is glycolysis and it takes place outside of the mitochondria and during this phase it does require oxygen. During this phase, glucose is broke down to two molecules of pyruvate. During the breakdown it release enough energy to give a net gain of 2 Atp. Preparatory reaction and citric acid cycle follow next and occur in the mitochondria. The preparatory reaction happens in the matrix of the mitochondria. Carbon Dioxide is release and pyruvate is broken into a 2-carbon acetyl group. The citric acid cycle also takes place in the matrix. Oxidation occurs when two carbon dioxide molecules, three NADH molecules, and one FADH2 molecules are formed. This phase produces one ATP. The final phase is the electron transport chain that is located in the cristae in the mitochondria. FADH2 and NADH bring electrons to the transport chain. The electrons move down and energy is caught to form ATP. For every pair of electrons that enters by NADH, three ATP result and 2 ATP result by Fadh2. (Mc-Graw-Hill, 2014)...
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...respiration There are three stages in cellular respiration: Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. The equation for cellular respiration is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP Glycolysis Glycolysis is multiple reactions that gain energy from glucose by splitting the glucose into 3 carbon molecules (Pyruvates). (Mason et al., 2016) Glycolysis is anaerobic meaning it doesn’t require any oxygen to be carried out. This is because energy can be made through fermentation; therefore it needs NAD+ in order for the process of Glycolysis to keep working. The anaerobic process of fermentation causes the creation of lactic acid as a by product. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell To begin the...
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...sub-pathways: - anaerobic stage, Glycolysis - a transition reaction connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle - an electron transport chain Structure of Mithochondrion • double membranes organelle found in almost all living cells • the inner membrane is folded to form little shelves called cristae • the inner space filled with gel-like fluid is called the matrix, containing numerous enzymes • the transition reaction and the krebs cycle occur in the matrix while electron transport chain occurs in the cristae Glycolysis • takes place in the cytoplasm of every living cells • anaerobic stage of cellular respiration • breakdown of glucose to two molecules of 3-carbon compound, pyruvic acid with net gain of ATP molecules and 2 NADH • begins with energy investment step that requires two separate reactions and uses two ATP resulting to two C3 molecules • ends in energy harvesting steps wherein oxidation occurs by the removal of electrons which are accepted by NAD, and the generation of four ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation Transition Reaction: Acetyl coA Formation • serves as a bridge connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle • takes place in the matrix of mitochondrion • each pyruvic acid molecule is split into 2-carbon acetyl group and CO2 with the production of NADH • the acetyl coenzyme A is the high-energy molecule that enters th krebs cycle Krebs Cycle • named after Sir Hans Krebs, German-born...
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...saturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acid is made of carbon and hydrogen bonds that does not mix well with water. Unsaturated fatty acids are solids at room temperature. They are found in food sources such as cheese, red meats, coconut oil, whole milk dairy products. Unsaturated fatty acids are structurally designed with a single carbon of a single carbon double bond, and hydrogen bonds. They are liquids at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids include food sources such as plant based oils, flaxseeds, walnuts, salmon, and unhydrogenated soybean oil (Sanders, 2013). The body is able to use fats for energy storage and metabolism of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adipose tissue stores fat. Triglyceride is a fat storing molecule. Fatty acids and glycerol are components of triglycerides. Fatty acids are separated into two carbon units, which produce acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl –CoA) during the process of beta oxidation. Electrons and hydrogens are extracted from the fatty acid. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) are created and transferred to electron transport chain for creation of ATP. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle via beta oxidation pathway. The electrons and hydrogens are expelled and moved to electron transport chain for production of ATP (O’Malley, 2014). A deficiency of linoleic acid (LA) will affect the biochemical functions of the body. Linoleic acid is an omega six polyunsaturated fatty acid (PURFA). The fatty...
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...taking Oxygen and glucose and turning them into ATP, is energy to the body. The glucose is obtained from the food and food is breaking down to glucose to make ATP. Cellular respiration is 40% to efficient with 60% of the energy going to heat. This process happen in three stages the first one is Glycolysis, than Krebs cycle or Citric Acid cycle and the third one is Electron Transport Chain (ETC) Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions in the cytoplasm of cells that breakdown glucose into two or more molecules of Pyruvic acid 4ATP molecules are proceed 2ATP molecules are used in the process, the net gain is 2ATP molecules,2NADH molecules are proceed. After Glycolysis there is an intermediate stage Pyruvic acid moves into mitochondria where it undergoes a series of chemical reactions that causes it to lose one CO2 molecule. This product combines with coenzymes A to form acetyl-CoA than is ready for the next step Krebs cycle. Krebs cycle is a series of reactions that breaks down Acetyl-CoA to form ATP, NADH and FADH2. One molecule of ATP is proceed, 3 molecules of NADH are proceed,1FADH2 molecules is proceed and the CO2 is by-product of the Krebs Cycle. The final stage is Electron Transport chain (ETC) is a series of proteins embedded in the mitochondria membrane. FADH2 and NADH carry electrons to the electron chain those electrons move down the chain and goes down to the final electron acceptor which is oxygen. Oxygen combines with H to form water (HO2) the electron...
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...sub-pathways: - anaerobic stage, Glycolysis - a transition reaction connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle - an electron transport chain Structure of Mithochondrion • double membranes organelle found in almost all living cells • the inner membrane is folded to form little shelves called cristae • the inner space filled with gel-like fluid is called the matrix, containing numerous enzymes • the transition reaction and the krebs cycle occur in the matrix while electron transport chain occurs in the cristae Glycolysis • takes place in the cytoplasm of every living cells • anaerobic stage of cellular respiration • breakdown of glucose to two molecules of 3-carbon compound, pyruvic acid with net gain of ATP molecules and 2 NADH • begins with energy investment step that requires two separate reactions and uses two ATP resulting to two C3 molecules • ends in energy harvesting steps wherein oxidation occurs by the removal of electrons which are accepted by NAD, and the generation of four ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation Transition Reaction: Acetyl coA Formation • serves as a bridge connecting glycolysis with the krebs cycle • takes place in the matrix of mitochondrion • each pyruvic acid molecule is split into 2-carbon acetyl group and CO2 with the production of NADH • the acetyl coenzyme A is the high-energy molecule that enters th krebs cycle Krebs Cycle • named after Sir Hans Krebs, German-born...
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...pathway (glycolysis), though some reactions are shared http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/writers/austin_murphy/07/19/stage.16/ Why is gluconeogenesis necessary? • Humans require ~160 g glucose/day, most is used by the brain • Body fluids carry ~20 g of free glucose, ~200 g is available as glycogen (marathon runners ‘hit the wall’, and cyclists ‘bonk’ when all glycogen is used up) • So the body carries a ~1 day supply of glucose. If insufficient is obtained from diet then synthesis of new glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors is necessary. Fat catabolism does not generate glucose • Pyruvate and lactate produced during exercise can be recycled to glucose by gluconeogenesis • Pyruvate, lactate, most amino acids, glycerol and citric acid cycle intermediates can all be converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis • Brain and muscle are the major sites of glucose consumption. But liver and kidney account for almost all gluconeogenesis. Glucose is then transported to where it is needed via bloodstream • Gluconeogenesis appears to be the reverse of glycolysis. Glucose is made, ATP and NADH are consumed. But it cannot be the simple reverse of glycolysis because: • Glycolysis is exergonic, so the reverse pathway cannot happen spontaneously • Different enzymes are required to allow separate regulation of the two pathways Seven of the reactions of glycolysis are shared The three steps that are highly exergonic are replaced by four different reactions and enzymes in gluconeogenesis...
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