...'PETERSON DESIR PROF: SMITH-PETER CLASS: HST- 275 Catherine the Great was and remains one of the most important figures in Russian history. During her thirty-four-year reign Russia has greatly prospered not only materially , but more importantly intellectually, which played a vital role in the modernization or the westernization of Russia a couple centuries later. Evidently, analyzing her long reign through the prism of what is considered as democracy today, one could depict its very faults and blemishes. However, we should view her reign as it was then , but not as it should have been nowadays. Whether somebody coined it as an enlightened absolutism, the real truth remained : Catherine the Great has brought Enlightenment to Russia, the European Enlightenment. What was it, Enlightenment?- It was a philosophical movement that greatly fostered rational thinking, the use of science over traditions and superstitions, and also promoted freedom ,security and equality before law for all people. Catherine was thrilled by such great ideas. She devoted herself to reading and established a great line of correspondence with the true leaders of the movement such as Voltaire, Diderot, Bossuet,etc..In her letters, she overtly expressed her intention of becoming an adept of the movement. She started in creating schools and reforming the educational system. She Turned to Voltaire for advice. As an Enlightenment's follower, she was deeply interested...
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...'PETERSON DESIR PROF: SMITH-PETER CLASS: HST- 275 Catherine the Great was and remains one of the most important figures in Russian history. During her thirty-four-year reign Russia has greatly prospered not only materially , but more importantly intellectually, which played a vital role in the modernization or the westernization of Russia a couple centuries later. Evidently, analyzing her long reign through the prism of what is considered as democracy today, one could depict its very faults and blemishes. However, we should view her reign as it was then , but not as it should have been nowadays. Whether somebody coined it as an enlightened absolutism, the real truth remained : Catherine the Great has brought Enlightenment to Russia, the European Enlightenment. What was it, Enlightenment?- It was a philosophical movement that greatly fostered rational thinking, the use of science over traditions and superstitions, and also promoted freedom ,security and equality before law for all people. Catherine was thrilled by such great ideas. She devoted herself to reading and established a great line of correspondence with the true leaders of the movement such as Voltaire, Diderot, Bossuet,etc..In her letters, she overtly expressed her intention of becoming an adept of the movement. She started in creating schools and reforming the educational system. She Turned to Voltaire for advice. As an Enlightenment's follower, she was deeply interested...
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...Versailles. | 17th June 1789: | Representatives of the tiers état form a National Assembly swearing not to leave until a new constitution is established. | 23rd June 1789: | King rejects Resolutions of the tiers etat. | 9th July 1789: | National Assembly declares itself Constituent Assembly. | 12th July 1789: | Necker is dismissed. 50,000 citizens arm themselves with pikes and form National Guard. | 14th July 1789: | Armed citizens storm and capture the Bastille. | 15th July 1789: | Lafayette appointed Commander of National Guard. | 17th July 1789: | ‘Great Fear’ begins as peasants revolt across France. | 5-11 August 1789: | National Assembly decrees abolition of feudalism. | 26th August 1789: | National Assembly decrees Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen | 5th October 1789: | Women lead delegation to King in Versaille demanding bread. After scuffles, they are fobbed off by the King. | 6th October 1789: | King returns to Paris. | 2nd November 1789: | Constituent Assembly decrees expropriation of Church property. | 16th December 1789: | National Assembly legislates for departments, etc. | 28th January 1790: | Removal of civil disabilities against Jews. | 13th February 1790: | Suppression of religious orders and vows. | 19th June 1790: | Abolition of nobility and titles. | 14th July 1790: | Civil Constitution, subordinating the Church to the civil government, inaugurated by Louis XVI. | 18th August 1790: |...
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...Open Interpretation to the Constitution Leads to First National Bank A National Bank is an essential part of this nation's economy. We know that it can further strengthen the ties between Americans and the federal government. The National Bank has allowed America to grow its economy, unit as country, and improve trade between the colonies. But when the first National Bank plan entered into Congress there was much controversy over it. Two men, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, held two very different and opposing views on the Bank plan. This led to much controversy over the plan and how they believed it would impact the nation. At the root of the controversy was wether or not the plan was constitutional. Both men interpreted the clauses in the Constitution differently, so both Hamilton and Jefferson submitted plans to President Washington in hopes their view would prevail. The conflict between Hamilton and Jefferson’s opposing views came to a head in 1791. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury at the time, submitted a report to Congress on a plan for a National Bank. There was great controversy over the creation of a National Bank for many reasons. The main reason being that Hamilton stated that its creation was completely justified by the Constitutions elastic clause. The elastic clause grants Congress the power “to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper” (Elastic Clause Law & Legal Definition) and to carry out its duties. In his plan Hamilton wrote...
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...state constitutions. After armed conflict began in Massachusetts, Patriots drove the royal officials out of every colony and assembled in mass meetings and conventions. Those Patriot governments in the colonies then unanimously empowered their delegates to Congress to declare independence. In 1776, Congress created an independent nation, the United States of America. With large-scale military and financial support from France and military leadership by General George Washington, the American Patriots won the Revolutionary War. The peace treaty of 1783 gave the new nation the land east of the Mississippi River (except Florida and Canada). The central government established by the Articles of Confederation proved ineffectual at providing stability, as it had no authority to collect taxes and had no executive officer. Congress called a convention to meet secretly in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation. It wrote a a new Constitution, which was adopted in 1789. In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the Union's first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief political and financial adviser, a strong central government was created. When Thomas Jefferson became president he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the US. A second and last war with Britain was fought in 1812. All thirteen colonies united in a Congress that called on the colonies to write new state constitutions. After...
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...United States of America. Morality is determined by religion. In this student’s opinion, acts that may be considered immoral should not be illegal. According to Madison, 1791: Amendment I of the Bill of Rights: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”. Joseph Story provides commentary on this amendment by stating: “the right of a society or government to interfere in matters of religion will hardly be contested by any persons, who believe that piety, religion and morality are intimately connected with the well-being of the state.” What of the person who does not believe in religion? If a person does not have the same faith or beliefs as the society, the person is more likely to commit a crime in a society of moral laws. Example: a person who chooses to have sex with another person of the same sex in the privacy of their own home does not impose on any other person’s right of freedom. It is this student’s opinion that laws based on morality violate the Bill of Rights, Amendment I regarding the freedom of religion and, in turn, becomes unconstitutional. In closing, this paper provided an opinion that “acts considered to be immoral” should not be legal based on the United States Bill of Rights (Phoenix, 2012). References Madison, J. (1791). Bill of Rights of the United States...
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...which is further known as the Asuka Period. In (552 A.D.) in Nihon Shoki Buddhism was introduced. A prince named Shotoku was known as spreading peace to Japan through the Proclamation of the Seventeen articles known as the Seventeen Article Constitution. (Japanesehistory.info, 2011, p.1). He devoted many efforts in Japan, not only Buddhism but the Chinese as well. Leading on to the Heian System, the court was over worried about the Effete Arts and started to ignore administrations and military affairs. During this period there were three types of land-holdings, which were called Rank-Land (family), Salary-Land (Imperial) and Merit-Land (Outstanding Effort). As the system was being held by the nobles it became more powerful. Warriors and Nobles were continued struggling. Around (1156 A.D.) the Hogen Rebellion was released which was complicated to the court so as a conclusion leading warriors as fighters. Laws of Japanese Congress (1791) states that Freedom of Religion is the First Amendment. “Congress shall make no law respecting establishments of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…” (Congress, 1791, p.1). In opposition, hundreds of years ago, the Japanese law required Buddhism. The United States Constitution brings forth fairness because it allows free-will in religion, but Japanese Laws are unfair because it binds citizens to Buddhism. Laws prohibit worship for the Japanese culture, but freedom of choice exists for American citizens. Citizens...
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...Shortly after the uprising in 1791, Toussaint Louverture, had joined the camps of rebels. With experience in herbal and African healing, Toussaint Louverture became a medical officer. However, recognized with his ability to organize, train and lead the men, he rose from his position to general. In December of the same year, Toussaint Louverture was involved in the negotiations between the rebel leaders and French Governor, Blanchelande. Negotiations were rejected but stated the release of white prisoners and return to work in exchange of the banning the use of the whip and for a handful of leaders’ freedom. Even though he supported royalist political views, Louverture had begun using the language of equality and freedom linked with the French Revolution. In late 1791, he became committed to complete the abolition of slavery and stated this to...
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...The French Revolution © Student Handouts, Inc. www.studenthandouts.com The Old Regime (Ancien Regime) • Old Regime – socio-political system which existed in most of Europe during the 18th century • Countries were ruled by absolutism – the monarch had absolute control over the government • Classes of people – privileged and unprivileged – Unprivileged people – paid taxes and treated badly – Privileged people – did not pay taxes and treated well Society under the Old Regime • In France, people were divided into three estates – First Estate • High-ranking members of the Church • Privileged class – Second Estate • Nobility • Privileged class – Third Estate • Everyone else – from peasants in the countryside to wealthy bourgeoisie merchants in the cities • Unprivileged class The Three Estates Estate Privileges Exemptions •Collected the tithe •Censorship of the press •Control of education •Kept records of births, deaths, marriages, etc. •Catholic faith held honored position of being the state religion (practiced by monarch and nobility) •Owned 20% of the land •Paid no taxes •Subject to Church law rather than civil law •Moral obligation (rather than legal obligation) to assist the poor and needy •Support the monarchy and Old Regime •Collected taxes in the form of feudal dues •Monopolized military and state appointments •Owned 20% of the land •Paid no taxes •Support the monarchy and Old Regime •Nobles First Population •Circa 25,000,000 •None •None •Paid all taxes...
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...Bill of Rights and Amendments Bill of Rights and Amendments The Constitution provides that an amendment may be proposed either by the Congress with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a constitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the State legislatures. Since the President does not have a constitutional role in the amendment process, the joint resolution does not go to the White House for signature or approval. The original document is forwarded directly to NARA's Office of the Federal Register (OFR) for processing and publication. The OFR adds legislative history notes to the joint resolution and publishes it in slip law format. The Archivist submits the proposed amendment to the States for their consideration by sending a letter of notification to each Governor along with the informational material prepared by the OFR. The Governors then formally submit the amendment to their State legislatures. When a State ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the State action, which is immediately conveyed to the Director of the Federal Register. The OFR examines ratification documents for facial legal sufficiency and an authenticating signature. If the documents are found to be in good order, the Director acknowledges receipt and maintains custody of them. The OFR retains these documents until an amendment is adopted or fails, and then transfers the records to the National Archives...
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...The Systematic Obliteration of the Constitutional Republic The power of the US federal government, relative to the power of the states, has increased since the ratification of the Constitution in 1791. Describe how the provisions within the Constitution pertaining to the ‘power to tax and spend’ (Art.1, sec.8, pt.1) and the ‘commerce clause’ (Art.1, sec.8, pt.3) have been used over time to expand federal power and thus the power of the President. “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness” (Declaration of Independence, n.d.). Taken adapted from the scholar John Locke’s “Life Liberty and Estate” in his text the ‘Second Treatise of Government’, (Locke, J. 2005) and incorporated into the United States declaration of independence. Much has been said on the influence of Locke, on Thomas Jefferson during the drafting of the United States declaration of independence, such as was argued by McKay, (2005 pp. 44) . However, where Locke emphasized the importance of procuring and maintaining a limited government, it appears his influences on the political foundation of the United States drew to a halt here. As we are now bearing witness, to one of the most rapidly expanding government institutions in western liberal democracy. In this essay, I intend to discuss how the expansion of federal government power has increased...
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...Right is known to be the first ten amendment of the United States Constitution. It serves to provide protection to the rights of liberty and property basically it provides freedom to individuals personally. The amendment was produced by James Madison to the first United States Congress as a legislative article. This Bill of Right plays an important role in American Law and is a vital symbol of the freedom and culture of our nation. The Fourth amendment to the United States Constitution is the part of the Bill of Right which guards against unreasonable searches and seizures alongside with obtaining any warrant supported by probable cause. The Fifth Amendment protects against abuse of government authority in a legal procedure. The 5th Amendment to the US Constitution was passed by ratified on December 15, 1791 as part of the Bill of Rights. In the Fifth Amendment no person shall be held to capital to answer unless on a presentment of a Grand Jury. The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution is what sets forth rights in the prosecution of criminals. In a criminal prosecution the accuser have the right to a speedy and public trial. The accused has the right to know what they are been charged for and why they are been held in jail. They also have the right to know who is saying that they've committed the crime, and the right to ask them questions. The Eight Amendment to the United States Constitution protects against excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment from...
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...FRENCH REVOLUTION The French people overthrew their ancient government in 1789. They took as their slogan the famous phrase"Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite"--Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Equality, or doing away with privilege, was the most important part of the slogan to the French revolutionists. For equality they were willing to sacrifice their political liberty. They did this when they accepted the rule of Napoleon I. Fraternity, or brotherhood with all men, was also sacrificed. However, they did win equality before the law. Why the French Wanted Equality The French had good reasons for wanting equality. Before 1789 inequality was typical of the old government. The nobles and clergy were the privileged orders. They were exempt from such direct taxes as the taille, or land tax. Most taxes were paid by the Third Estate--a class that included peasants, artisans, merchants, and professional men. Even among these groups taxes were not equal. Some provinces were exempt from certain assessments, such as the gabelle, or salt tax. In addition, the collection of some taxes was made by contractors or tax farmers, and the tax gatherers collected whatever they could. Other Inequalities There were social and economic inequalities as well as political ones. The peasant suffered under the burden of out-of-date feudal dues. These were collected with renewed vigor by the nobles in the latter part of the 18th century. Rabbits might destroy the peasant's garden and pigeons eat his grain...
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...On August 28, 1794, in his third letter written under the pseudonym “Tully,” Alexander Hamilton wrote, “If it were to be asked, What is the most sacred duty and the greatest source of security in a Republic? the answer would be, An inviolable respect for the Constitution and Laws–the first growing out of the last.” As one of the most prominent interpreters of the U.S. Constitution and a Federalist, fervently advocating for a strong federal government, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton believed that citizens needed to respect and abide by all laws in order for the nation to be prosperous and protected. In the primary years of the American Republic, it became a top priority for the infant U.S. government to repay the debts that accumulated...
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...Learning Materials COMMON LAW Common Law, Statute and Precedence are the sources for all laws accepted in the jurisdictions within the United States. Common law is based on the old English Legal System of laws based on the overthrow of monarchial dictators and the replacement with a representative system of Parliament. When the American Colonies established their independence in the late 1700’s they adopted much of the English legal system that they knew when they immigrated to the “New World”. This became the initial basis for civil and criminal law in the newly formed United States. Common law results from judicial decisions handed down from the courts. Most of the common law in criminal issues pertaining to the modern criminal justice system has been subjugated by state and federal legislatures that have created statutes establishing criminal law violations. In dealing with Common Law there is a catch-22 type of situation. When a common law is overridden by a statute creation the history of the common law is vacated in terms of how laws are executed. The problem arises when the enforcement method of the new law has common law as its basis. If this is not deemed acceptable by society then another statutory law has to be created. Whenever new laws are enacted there are frequently challenges in court. These challenges depending on the jurisdiction of the law end up going through the system and various courts of appeals. Ultimately they may reach the US Supreme Court where...
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