...The law of contract is the foundation upon which the superstructure of modern business is built. It is common knowledge that in business transactions quite often promises are made at one time and the performance follows later. Explaining the object of the law Sir William Anson observes:”the law of contract is intended to ensure that what a man has been promised to him shall be performed” DEFINITIONS • A contract is an agreement made between two or more parties which the law will enforce • Pollock: “Every agreement and promise enforceable at law is a contract.” • Salmond: “A contract is an agreement creating and defining obligations between the parties.” AGREEMENT • An agreement is defined as “every promise and every set of promises, forming consideration for each other.” • A proposal when accepted becomes a promise. Agreement = Offer + Acceptance INDIAN CONTRACT ACT 1872 The law of contract in India is contained in the Indian contract act, 1872. According to section 2(h) of Indian contract act: an agreement enforceable by law is a contract” ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A VALID CONTRACT 1. OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE: When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence he is said to make a proposal. The first step towards creating a contract is that one person shall signify or make a proposal...
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...Mailed on 23/12/13 BRIEF DISCUSSION ON CONTRACT ACT- 1872 According to Section 2 (h) of the Indian Contact Act, 1872, "A contract is an agreement enforceable by law”. A contract therefore, is an agreement the object of which is to create a legal obligation i.e., a duty enforceable by law. From the above definition, we find that a contract essentially consists of two elements: (1) An agreement and (2) Legal obligation i.e., a duty enforceable by law. As per section 2 (e) "Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement." Thus it is clear from this definition that a 'promise' is an agreement. Section 2 (b) states that "When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise." An agreement, therefore, comes into existence only when one party makes a proposal or offers to the other party and that other party signifies his assent (i.e., gives his acceptance) thereto. In short, an agreement is the sum total of 'offer' and 'acceptance'. Example, A promises B to sell his horse for Rs. 10,000/-. The Law of Contract deals with such promises which create legal obligations. This excludes those promises made in common life which may be morally binding but creates no legal binding. Promises which do not give rise to legal obligations are not contracts. For example, if A promises B to attend the dinner and fails to attend then...
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...to have duties under the law of contract and the main legal requirements for the formation of a contract with practical examples and applied theory to support the arguments and then we are going to discuss about how business-people come to have duties for negligence under the law of tort and the main legal requirements for liability in negligence with practical examples and applied theory to support the arguments and then we are going to discuss briefly about the E-commerce and how business-people have duties under the law of e-commerce with exactly one legal requirement of the E-commerce Regulations 2002 and then finally we will discuss briefly about the business ethics and then thoroughly about if the business-people operate mainly out of self-interest or not and then we are going to discuss briefly why we are disagree with statement of "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) by Adam Smith. “Contract and how do business-people come to have duties under the law of contract” When two or more parties agreed upon specific terms and conditions in written and willingly want to perform their duties and responsibilities is called agreement and when the agreement is enforceable under the law is called contract. Every contract should need to have the offer and acceptance from two or more parties and with something in return (consideration) and with the purpose to make legal relations. The main legal requirements for the formation of a contract are as follows: • Capacity: ...
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...INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872 The Law of Contract Constitutes the most important branch of mercantile or commercial law. It affects everybody, more so, trade, commerce anq industry. It may be said that the contract is the foundation of the civilized world. The law relating to contract is governed by the Indian Contract Act, 1872 (Act No. IX of 1872). The preamble to the Act says that it is an Act "to define and amend certain parts of the law relating to contract". It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Act mostly deals with the general principles and rules governing contracts. The Act is divisible into two parts. The first part (Section 1-75) deals with the general principles of the law of contract, and therefore applies to all contracts irrespective of their nature. The second part (Sections 124-238) deals with certain special kinds of contracts, e.g., Indemnity and guarantee, bailment, pledge, and agency. The term contract has been defined by various authors In the following manner: "A contract is an agreement creating and defining obligations between the parties". -Salmond "A contract is an agreement enforceable at law, made between two or more persons, by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearances on the part of the other or others". -Anson "Every agreement and promise enforceable at law is a contract". -Sir Fredrick Pollock The Indian Contract Act has defined contract in Section...
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...The Indian Contract Act, 1872 is the law relating to Contracts in India. It came into force on September 1, 1872 and is extended to the whole of India except to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian Contract Act, 1872 initially also dealt with Sale of Goods, Indemnity and Guarantee, Law of Bailment, Agency and Partnership. However, in 1930, a separate Act on the Sale of Goods was passed. The Indian Partnership Act was passed in 1932. Interpretation of The Indian Contract Act, 1872 1. When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal; 2. When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise; 3. The person making the proposal is called the "promisor", and the person accepting the proposal is called the "promisee"; 4. When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise; 5. Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement; 6. Promises, which form the consideration or part, of the consideration for each other are called reciprocal promises; 7. An agreement...
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...THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872 The law relating to contract is governed by the Indian Contract Act, 1872. The Act came into force on the first day of September, 1872. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Act is by no means exhaustive on the law of contract. It does not deal with all the branches of the law of contract. Thus, contracts relating to partnership, sale of goods, negotiable instruments, insurance etc. are dealt with by separate Acts. What is contract? The term contract has been defined by various authors in the following manner: “A contract is an agreement creating and defining obligations between the parties”. —Salmond “A contract is an agreement enforceable at law, made between two or more persons, by which rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearances on the part of the other or others”. —Anson “Every agreement and promise enforceable at law is a contract”. —Sir Fredrick Pollock The Indian Contract Act has defined contract in Section 2(h) as “an agreement enforceable by law”. These definitions indicate that a contract essentially consists of two distinct parts. First, there must be an agreement. Secondly, such an agreement must be enforceable by law. To be enforceable, an agreement must be coupled with an obligation. A contract therefore, is a combination of the two elements: (1) an agreement and (2) an obligation. Thus Contract = Agreement +enforcement at...
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...1) INTRODUCTION Page - 1 2) PERFORMANCE OF CONTRACTS Page - 2 to 5 3) CONCLUSION Page - 6 4) BIBLIOGRAPHY Page - 7 INTRODUCTION IMPORTANCE OF CONTRACT LAW: Contract law lays down general principles of contract. It is like a limit or boundary within which parties can agree upon something. It lays down the circumstances in which it will be legally obligatory to perform a promise and provides remedies for breach. Our society depends upon free exchange in the marketplace at every stage. The interactions in the market all the times depend upon voluntary agreements between individuals or other “legal persons”. Such voluntary agreements can never become binding without a legal contract. It affects all of us since everyone enters into some kind of contract everyday without being actually aware of it. For example, eating out in a restaurant, travelling in a bus, taking property on lease, buying movie tickets, buying a house, etc all are contracts whether expressed or implied. EVOLUTION OF CONTRACT LAW: The origin of the contract law can be traced from the development of common law and it is also alleged to be an offspring of tort law, as both contracts and torts give rise to obligations. The difference between them lies in the fact that the tort obligations are imposed by law; on the other hand contracts are a medium through which people willingly create commitment between themselves. Contract law is based on a number of Latin legal principles...
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...INTRODUCTION Contract labour, the labour of workers whose freedom is restricted by the terms of a contractual relation and by laws that make such arrangements permissible and enforceable. The essence of the contract labourer’s obligation is his surrender for a specified period of the freedom to quit his work and his employer. Other stipulations cover such matters as repayment of the costs of transportation, housing, training, and other expenses. The system of employing contract labour is prevalent in most industries in different occupations including skilled and semi skilled jobs. It is also prevalent in agricultural and allied operations and to some extent in the services sector. A workman is deemed to be employed as Contract Labour when he is hired in connection with the work of an establishment by or through a contractor. Contract workmen are indirect employees; persons who are hired, supervised and remunerated by a contractor who, in turn, is compensated by the establishment. Contract labour has to be employed for work which is specific and for definite duration. The system of contract labour offers tremendous opportunities for employment and allows the employers flexibility to choose what is best for them. This helps improve productivity and service competitiveness. The principal employer should however have to ensure payment of wages to contract labour as laid down by the law in force as also other basic amenities and other social security benefits The contract workers...
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...PLEDGE A pledge is a special type of bailment in which a person temporarily transfers the possession or ownership of his/her property in order to secure a loan from the other person. It is defined as in the Indian Contract Act, 1872, as “The bailment of goods as a security for the payment of a debt or performance of a promise is called pledge. The bailor in this case is called a Pawner and the bailee is called a Pawnee.” Essentially, when the purpose of the bailment is to secure a loan, it is called a pledge. This article is concerned specifically with Section 176 of the Indian Contract Act, which deals with the pawnee’s right to sue or right of sale in case of the pawner’s default. The essential ingredients that are required to constitute a pledge are as follows: 1. Delivery of possession – As in bailment, the delivery of possession is essential in a pledge. Thus, in the case of Revenue Authority vs Sudarsanam Pictures, a film producer borrowed a sum of money from a financier and agreed to deliver the final prints of the film when they were ready. This was held not to be a pledge because there was no delivery of possession at the time of the agreement. It is also possible to let the pawner keep the physical goods even though the legal possession is transferred to the pawner. Thus, in Bank of Chittor vs Narsimbulu, a cinema hall equipment was pledged to the bank but the bank allowed the hall owner to keep the equipment to show the movies. The hall owner then sold the...
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...search-advanced-form-portlet 1 of 7 https://www.lawnet.sg/lawnet/group/lawnet/legal-research/advanced-se... UNFAIR CONTRACT TERMS ACT (CHAPTER 396) (Original Enactment: U.K. 1977, c. 50) REVISED EDITION 1994 (20th May 1994) An Act to impose further limits on the extent to which civil liability for breach of contract, or for negligence or other breach of duty, can be avoided by means of contract terms and otherwise. [12th November 1993 *] * Date when this Act was made applicable by the Application of English Law Act (Cap. 7A). PART I Introductory Scope of this Part 1. —(1) For the purposes of this Part, “negligence” means the breach — ( a) of any obligation, arising from the express or implied terms of a contract, to take reasonable care or exercise reasonable skill in the performance of the contract; or ( b) of any common law duty to take reasonable care or exercise reasonable skill (but not any stricter duty) (2) This Part is subject to Part III; and in relation to contracts, the operation of sections 2 to 4 and 7 is subject to the exceptions made by the First Schedule. (3) In the case of both contract and tort, sections 2 to 7 apply (except where the contrary is stated in section 6(4)) only to business liability, that is liability for breach of obligations or duties arising from things done or to be done by a person in the course of a business (whether his own business or another’s), and references to liability are to be read accordingly...
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...JudgmentMohori Bibee and another Vs. Dharmodas Ghose Mohori Bibee and another Vs. Dharmodas Ghose Options Dock |Print |PDF | |[pic] |[pic] | Court : Kolkata Reported in : (1903)30IndianAppeals114 Judge : Lord Macnaghten; Lord Davey; Lord Lindley; Sir Ford North; Sir Andrew Scoble; Sir Andrew Wilson, JJ. Decided On : Mar-04-1903 Acts : Indian Evidence Act, 1877 - Section 115; Indian Contract Act - Sections 41, 19, 64, 65 Appellant : Mohori Bibee and another Respondent : Dharmodas Ghose Advocate for Respondent : W.W. Box, Adv. Advocate for Appellant : Watkins; Lempriere, Advs. Judgment: SIR FORD NORTH, J. On July 20, 1895, the respondent, Dhurmodas Ghose, executed a mortgage in favour of Brahmo Dutt, a money-lender carrying on business at Calcutta and elsewhere, to secure the repayment of Rs. 20,000 at 12 per cent. interest on some houses belonging to the respondent. The amount actually advanced is in dispute. At that time the respondent was an infant; and he did not attain twenty-one until the month of September following. Throughout the transaction Brahmo Dutt was absent from Calcutta, and the whole business was carried through for him by his attorney, Kedar Nath Mitter, the money being found by Dedraj, the local manager of Brahmo Dutt. While considering the proposed advance, Kedar Nath received information that the respondent was still a minor; and on July 15, 1895, the following letter was written and...
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...part of civil law. It governs and regulates the trade and commerce in the country. Mercantile law deals with the needs of a business man. This includes laws relating to insurance, partnerships, contracts, companies, negotiable instruments, arbitration, carriage of goods etc. A mercantile law in Pakistan is taken from the English law. So it follows the English laws to a considerable extent with some modifications and reservations to suite with the Indian conditions and practices. Following are the main source of the Pakistan’s mercantile laws: 1. English Mercantile Law: An English law which developed and come into existence through the customs and usage of traders and merchants in England is the main source of the Indian Mercantile laws. These customs and usages of controlled the merchants in their dealings with each other. It is also known as the Common Law. It is unwritten and are based on customs, precedents and usages. The law of contracts is a part of Common law in England. It is one of the most important parts of mercantile law. 2. Indian Statute Law: Another main source of Indian Mercantile law is the Acts passed by the Indian Legislature. Pakistan Contract Act 1872, The Sale of Goods Act 1930, The negotiable Instrument Act 1881, The companies Act 1953 are some of the Acts passed by the Indian Legislature. 3. Judicial Decisions: Another important source of mercantile laws is the judicial decisions of the Courts. Disputes settled by the courts earlier have persuasive...
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...relating to formation of a contract, particularly focusing on offer and acceptance. According to the section 2(h) of Indian Contract Act 1872, “An agreement enforceable by law is a contract.” There should be two items which are objected to make contract are (i) An Agreement and (ii) Legal Obligation. In section 2(e) defines that, “Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each others, is an agreement.” From that definition it is clearly stated ‘promise’ is an agreement. However in section 2(b) which defines the term “when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise”. An agreement is the total combination of “Offer” and “Acceptance”. However in this case Mini gives a promise to pay TK20000 as a reward to whom who finds her each items of lost jewellery. An agreement to become a contract must be able to rise to a legal obligation, a duty enforceable by law. If an agreement is incapable of creating a duty enforceable by law it is not a contract. As all we know that “All contracts are agreement but all agreements are not contracts.” Section 2(h) according to the Indian Contract Act 1872, however provides some essential elements to create legal contracts between two parties. These ares- To make a contract the first and foremost things is that there must be legal offer and legal acceptance which are necessary to form a contract. It also should satisfy...
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...1. For Sale of Goods Act, 1957 to apply, it must be a goods. Under Section 2 Sale of Goods Act, 1957, goods is defined as every kind of movable property other than auctionable claims and money, and includes stock and shares, growing crops, grass, and things attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be severed before sale or under the contract of sale. Land is excluded from Sale of Goods Act, 1957. For Sale of Goods Act, 1957 to apply, it must be a contract of sale for a price. Contract of Sale is defined in Section 4(1) Sale of goods Act, 1957 as a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a price. (a) When Ahmad agrees to exchange his pen for Thomas’s watch, is there a goods? Here, Section 2 Sale of Goods Act, 1957 is satisfied because both pen and watch are movable properties. Is there any price? Here, there is no price because it is a barter agreement. Therefore, Section 4(1) Sale of goods Act, 1957 is not satisfied. Hence, Sale of Goods Act, 1957 cannot apply in this transaction. (b) When Jenny agrees to sell her house to George for Rm200000, is there a goods? Here, Section 2 Sale of Goods Act, 1957 is not satisfied because house is not a movable property. Therefore, Sale of Goods Act, 1957 cannot apply in this transaction. (c) When Frank agrees to buy shares in ABC Sdn Bhd from Sam for RM10000, is there a goods...
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...Minors' Capacity To Contract One of the elements constituting a valid contract is that the parties entering the contract are those who have the competency to contract. This is based on section 10 (1) of the Contract Act 1950 which states: “All agreements are contracted if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contact, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void.” Competency refers to the capacity of being an adult, having a sound mind and not forbidden by law to enter any contract (e.g, bankruptcy). This principle is based on section 11 of the Contract Act 1950 which provides that “every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject”. In Malaysia, the age of majority is recognized as above eighteen years of age as stated in the Age of Majority Act 1971: “The minority of all males and females at the age of eighteen years and every such male and female attaining that age shall be of the age of majority.” In effect of section 10 and 11 of contract Act 1950, the courts held in the cases of Mohori Bibee V Dharmodas Ghose (1903), Tan Hee Juan V Teh Boon Kiat (1934) and Government of Malaysia V Gurcharan Singh (1971) that all such agreements are void. Therefore, all contracts entered by a minor is generally void and a minor cannot sue...
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