...Counter trade is a form of market entry strategy. Countertrade is a form of international trade in which certain export and import transactions are directly linkrd with each other and in which import of goods are paid for by export of goods, instead of money payments. In the modern economies, most transactions anvovle monetary payments and receipts, either immediate or deferred. As against this, countertrade refers to a variety of unconventional international trade practices which link exchange of goods-directly or indirectly- in an attempt to dispense with currency transactions. Countertrade consists of transactions which have as a basic characteristic a linkage, legal or otherwise, between exports and imports of goods or services in addition to, or in place of, financial settlements. Countertrade can be used as an effective international business tool. Countertrade plays a part in 20-25 percent of world trade. Countertrade means exchanging goods or services which are paid for, in whole or part, with other goods or services, rather than with money. A monetary valuation can however be used in counter trade for accounting purposes. "Any transaction involving exchange of goods or service for something of equal value." FORMS OF COUNTERTRADE 1.)BARTER: Barter refers to direct exchange of goods of equal value, with no money and no third party involved in it. Barter is the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction. The principal exports are paid for with...
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...Counter Trade: Unquestionably, currency is the preferred payment medium for any export or import transaction—it is easy, fast, and straightforward to transact. Sometimes, though, compa¬nies must adapt to the reality that buyers in many countries cannot do so, whether due to the fact that their home country's currency is nonconvertible, the country doesn't have enough cash, or it doesn't have sufficient lines of credit. Sometimes companies and coun¬tries find it practically impossible to generate enough foreign exchange to pay for imports. In recourse, they devise creative ways to buy products. For example, Indonesia traded 40,000 tons of palm oil, worth about US$15 million, with Russia in exchange for Russian Sukhoi fighter aircraft. This trade, like others that fall under the umbrella term countertrade, illustrates that buyers and sellers often find creative ways of settling pay¬ment for imports and exports. Countertrade refers to any one of several different arrangements that parties negoti¬ate so that they can trade goods and services with limited or no use of currency. Technically, countertrade can be divided into two basic types: barter, based on clearing arrangements used to avoid money-based exchange; and buybacks, offsets, and counter purchase, which are used to impose reciprocal commitments. Countertrade is an inefficient way of doing business. By default, companies prefer the straightforward efficiency of cash or credit. In the case of countertrade, rather than...
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...can however be used in counter trade for accounting purposes. In dealings between sovereign states, the term bilateral trade is used. OR "Any transaction involving exchange of goods or service for something of equal value." Types of countertrade[edit] There are five main variants of countertrade: Barter: Exchange of goods or services directly for other goods or services without the use of money as means of purchase or payment. Barter is the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction. The principal exports are paid for with goods or services supplied from the importing market. A single contract covers both flows, in its simplest form involves no cash. In practice, supply of the principal exports is often held up until sufficient revenues have been earned from the sale of bartered goods. One of the largest barter deals to date involved Occidental Petroleum Corporation's agreement to ship sulphuric acid to the former Soviet Union for ammonia urea and potash under a 2 year deal which was worth 18 billion euros. Furthermore, during negotiation stage of a barter deal, the seller must know the market price for items offered in trade. Bartered goods can range from hams to iron pellets, mineral water, furniture or olive-oil all somewhat more difficult to price and market when potential customers must be sought. Switch trading: Practice in which one company sells to another its obligation to make a purchase in a given country. Counter purchase: Sale of goods...
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...a marketing tool, claiming that "Unless a hungry tailor happens to find an undraped farmer, who has both food and a desire for a pair of pants, neither can make a trade". (This is called "double coincidence of wants".) But this is arguably a too simplistic interpretation of how markets operate in the real world. In any real economy, bartering occurs all the time, even if it is not the main means to acquire goods and services. The volume of countertrade is growing. In 1972, it was estimated that countertrade was used by business and governments in 15 countries; in 1979, 27 countries; by the start of 1990s, around 100 countries. (Vertariu 1992). A large part of countertrade has involved sales of military equipment (weaponry, vehicles and installations). More than 80 countries nowadays regularly use or require countertrade exchanges. Officials of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) organization claimed that countertrade accounts for around 5% of the world trade. The British Department of Trade and Industry has suggested 15%, while some scholars believe it to be closer to 30%, with east-west trade having been as high as 50% in some trading sectors of Eastern European and Third World Countries for some years. A consensus of expert opinions (Okaroafo, 1989) has put the percentage of the value of world trade volumes linked to countertrade transactions at between 20% to 25%. According to an official US statement, "The U.S. Government generally views countertrade, including...
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...Systematic design of 3-bit counter with D flip-flops • Follow same procedure as before, building up the transition table • The difference is in the inputs needed for the flip-flops: the behaviour of a D flip-flop is much simpler: - Qn+1 = D - i.e. Q output after clock transition = D input at transition (which depends on the present states of the flip-flops) - value of Qn (before clock transition) has no direct effect - it is just a simple memory cell (latch) • There are no “don’t care” inputs for a simple counter, which leads to more complicated logic. State transition table for 3-bit counter with D flip-flops The ‘present state’ and ‘next state’ columns are the same as for the JKs present state label 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 A 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 label 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 next state C 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 B 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 A 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 inputs needed DC 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 DB 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 DA 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Because the D flip-flops are simple memories, the inputs needed are identical to the next state. Simply copy the columns across — that’s all there is to it! K-maps for 3-bit counter with D flip-flops BA DC C 0 1 00 01 11 10 0 1 BA 0 1 1 0 0 1 There are no “don’t care” entries here. DC = A ⋅ C + B ⋅C + A ⋅ B ⋅C = ( A + B )⋅ C + A ⋅ B⋅ C = ( A⋅ B) ⋅C + ( A⋅ B) ⋅C = ( A⋅ B) ⊕ C DB = A⋅ B + A ⋅ B = A⊕ B DB C 0 1 00 01 11 10 0 0 BA 1 1 0 0 1 1 DA C 0 1 00 01 11 10 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 DA = A Compare expressions for JK and D flip-flops J=K A B C D 1 A...
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...COUNTERS A counter is simply a device that counts. Counters may be used to count operations, quantities, or periods of time. They may also be used for dividing frequencies, for addressing information in storage, or for temporary storage. Counters are a series of FFs wired together to perform the type of counting desired. They will count up or down by ones, twos, or more. In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the flip-flop, and a wide variety of classifications exist: • Asynchronous (ripple) counter – changing state bits are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops • Synchronous counter – all state bits change under control of a single clock • Decade counter – counts through ten states per stage • Up/down counter – counts both up and down, under command of a control inputMontgomery • Ring counter – formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring • Johnson counter – a twisted ring counter • Cascaded counter • modulas counter. Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are digital in nature, and count in natural binary. Many types of counter circuits are available as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the 4000 series implement different counters. Occasionally there are advantages to using a counting sequence other than the natural binary sequence—such as the binary coded decimal counter, a linear feedback shift register counter, or aGray-code...
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...Analysis of New England Foundry In this analysis of New England Foundry we need to make a comparison with each of the models or layouts, the first combined counter with the new mentioned model with separated counters, for the determination of time saved with the new layout and then the amount that could be saved per hour with the same. For the layout with combined counter there is 2 servers with a single waiting line, the queuing model that is being used is the M/M/s, because of this queuing pattern consists of single phase and multiple servers. The arrival rate of 7 (4+3) per hour and service rate of 5per hour, which gives the average time in the system W=0.3922hours or 23.53minutes (refer to Excel) the time taken per trip is as follows: For maintenance people it will be 23.53+6 (walking time taken) =29.53minutes. For molding people 23.53+2= 25.53minutes. For the new layout with separate counters, Bob for the maintenance shop and Pete for pattern shop both of them follow M/M/1 model with single-server and single-waiting line. Bob providing for the maintenance people, serves 6per hour at an arrival rate of 4per hour, giving the average time in the system W=0.50hours or 30minutes(shown in A5) with the time taken for trip is 2minutes 30+2=32minutes, this is an increase of time, 2.47minutes compared with the other layout for maintenance dept. Pete serving the molding people, serves 7per hour at an arrival rate of 3per hour, giving the average time...
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...Lab 9. Counter design. 1. Objectives - Design of the synchronous finite state machine (FSM) with D-flip-flops and multiplexers - Verification of the circuit behavior with a CAD tool 2. Problem description Design the synchronous 4-bit counter which outputs follow the predetermined repeated sequence of states. The sequence of states represents the sequence of decimal digits of your ID number with the following exceptions: (1) digits which appear more than ones have to be deleted; (2) digit 9 has to be added at the end of the sequence if your ID has no 9. For example, for ID number 105123456 the second 1 and 5 are deleted and 9 is added at the end resulting in sequence 10523469. In the binary form the sequence is shown in Figure 1. The initial state is not critical. State 9 should be decoded to generate special signal SYNC shown in denominator in Figure 1. In the prelab: the circuit behavior has to be verified in OrCAD. The maximum clock frequency has to be calculated using timing specs of the flip-flops and multiplexers (logical gates) from datasheet. In the experiment: first, the functionality of the counter has to be tested with a pushbutton that controls the clock and a 7-segment LED display connected to the outputs. Finally, the counter sequence should be demonstrated with the logic analyzer synchronized with SYNC signal, 4inputs of the logic analyzer should be grouped into a bus. 3. Approaches Outputs of four D-flip-flops Q3Q2Q1Q0 serve as outputs of the counter. Next states...
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...this lady a digital camera from the display cabinet. She’s been waiting half an hour and then……” Alright Chris I can help you out for a little while…..” two hours later, Kyle exited the electronics department disheartened. That’s no way for a store manager to spend his afternoon. There’s got to be a logical way to solve this, thought Kyle. He walked back to his office and wrote down the facts as he knew them. 6. Store policy allows customers to check out other items at the electronics counter if they are making purchases in that department. {This makes sense especially if the customer wants to write a check for the entire purchase.} Sebenarnya pelanggan layak membuat pemeriksaan sebelum dan selepas membeli. Ini kerana pelanggan mempunyai hak untuk mendapatkan barang dan perkhidmatan yang terbaik. 7. Store clerks must monitor the locked cabinets and stay with a customer who wants to view an item from the cabinet. 8. Because of the size of the enclosed department, only two checkout counters will fit in electronics. 9. Moving the electronics department to the front of the store would not be wise because shoppers tend to pick up impulse items on their way to the center of the...
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...1- Implement Asynchronous Counters Theory: 1. What makes a counter asynchronous? The counter is asynchronous because its clock is only applied to a single flip-flop. 2. What is the modulus or count range of the following counter? 16 cycles will count from 0-15 Planning: 3. What is the purpose of the ELVISmx Dig In instrument? display the output of the counter Test Procedure: 4. Record the observed values from Lab 5 Table 5-1. Record the state number, the value of QDQCQBQA, the hexadecimal and decimal values. StateNumber | DataLine 7 | DataLine 6 | DataLine 5 | DataLine 4 | Hexadecimal | Decimal | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | A | 10 | 11 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | B | 11 | 12 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | C | 12 | 13 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | D | 13 | 14 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | E | 14 | 15 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | F | 15 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------- Part 2- Implement Synchronous Counters Theory: 5. What makes a counter synchronous? Because its clock is applied to each of the flip-flops. 6. What is the purpose of the ~U/D control signal for the 74191 Synchronous Counter? when low, counts up, when...
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...1(a) F(w,x,y,z) = wʹxʹyʹzʹ + wʹxʹyzʹ + wxʹyʹzʹ + wʹxyʹzʹ + wʹxyz + wʹxyzʹ + wxʹyzʹ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Minimal sum of products form: F(w,x,y,z) = x’z’ + w’z’ + w’xy (b) F (w,x,y,z) = xz’ + w’z’ + w’xy (using Only NAND Gates) F F (c) (i) | | | | | | | | S (p,q,r) = p | | | | | | | | T (p,q,r) = pq’ + p’q = p XOR q | | | | | | | | U (p,q,r) = q’r + qr’ = p XOR r (ii) (d)(i) Multiplexer How it works: * A multiplexer is a combinational circuit which connects multiple input lines to a single output, allowing only a single selected input signal to be passed to the output line at a time. * An Input signal is selected to be passed to output based on selection code which is implemented as two select lines. Typical Inputs and Outputs: * Consider a 4 -to -1 Multiplexer, typical inputs include four input lines labelled C0, C1, C2 and C3, along with two select lines labelled S0 and S1. * Output include single output line labelled F. Labelled diagram of 4-to-1 Multiplexer: (ii) Jk Flip Flop How it works: * A JK flip-flop is a sequential circuit which has two inputs that are similar to that of an S-R flip-flop, however all possible combinations of input values are valid...
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...Asynchronous Counter: 2 Muhammad Usman Arif 12/11/2013 1 12/11/2013 MODULUS OF A COUNTER: The modulus of a counter is the number of unique states that the counter will sequence through. The maximum possible number of states (maximum modulus) of a counter is 2n. Where n is the number of flip-flops in the counter. TRUNCATED SEQUENCES: Counters can also be designed that have a number of states in their sequence that is less than the maximum of 2n.the resulting sequence is called a truncated sequence. Muhammad Usman Arif 3 12/11/2013 ASYNCHRONOUS DECADE COUNTER: To obtain a truncated sequence, it is necessary to force the counter to recycle before going through all of its possible states. For example, the BCD decade counter must recycle back to the 0000 state after the 1001 state. One way to make the counter recycle after the count of nine (1001) is to decode count ten (1010) with a NAND gate and connect the output the clear (CLR) input. 4 Muhammad Usman Arif 12/11/2013 2 12/11/2013 ASYNCHRONOUS DECADE COUNTER: 5 Muhammad Usman Arif 12/11/2013 PARTIAL DECODING: Notice in the figure that only Q1 and Q3 are connected to the NAND gate inputs. This arrangement is an example of partial decoding; in which the two unique states (Q1 = 1 and Q3 =1 ) are sufficient to decode the count of ten because none of the other states (zero through nine) have both Q1 and Q3 HIGH at the same time. When the counter goes into...
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...Timers and Counters Exercise 2.2 1. Define the following timer bits: timer enable, timer timing, and timer done. ANSWER: Timer enable bit: The enable bit is true when the rung input logic is true, and the enable bit is false when the rung input logic is false. When the EN bit is true the timer accumulator is incrementing at the rate set by the timer time base. Timer timing bit: indicates when timing action is occurring and can be used to control timed events in automation applications. Timer done bit: the end of the timing process by changing states from false to true or from true to false depending on the type of timer instruction used. 2. Compare and contrast the true and false states of the timer timing bit for the on-delay timer, the off-delay timer, and the retentive timer. ANSWER: In the true states for all three have the accumulator value is less than the preset value, but for off-delay timer the timer rung is false unlike the retentive timer and on-delay that the timer rung is true. In the false states for all three have the accumulator is equal to or greater than the preset value. Like the true state retentive timer and on-delay timer both have the same condition and that are false if the timer rung is false, but the on-delay timer has other condition that are false if the timer done bit is true. The off-delay has a condition that are false if the timer done is false. 3. What is the difference between a retentive timer and a non-retentive timer? ...
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...วงจรนับ (Counter) วงจรรีจีสเตอร์ (Register) 1. บทนำ วงจรนับและรีจีสเตอร์เป็นการประยุกต์เอา ฟลิปฟลอป มาใช้งาน วงจรนับเป็นวงจรที่เกิดจากการนำ ฟลิปฟลอปมาต่อรวมกันหลายตัว เพื่อทำหน้าที่นับจำนวน คล๊อก (Clock) หรือพัลซ์ (Pulse) ที่ป้อนเข้าทางอินพุต หรือบางที่อาจเรียกว่าวงจรหารความถี่ ส่วนรีจีสเตอร์ก็เช่นเดียวกันโดยจะประกอบด้วย ฟลิปฟลอปเป็นพื้นฐาน ใช้ทำหน้าที่เก็บข้อมูลก่อนนำไปประมวลผลและใช้เลื่อนข้อมูล ซึ่งเรียกว่า ชิฟรีจีสเตอร์ (Shift Register) ในบทนี้จะได้กล่าวถึงรายละเอียดต่อไป วงจรนับแบ่งได้เป็น 2 ชนิด ได้แก่ วงจรนับแบบไม่เข้าจังหวะ (Asynchronous) และวงจรนับแบบเข้าจังหวะ (Synchronous) 2. Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) วงจรนับแบบไม่เข้าจังหวะ โดยพื้นฐานจะใช้ J-K Flip Flop มาต่อเรียงกันดังวงจรในรูปข้างล่าง สถานะเอาท์พุตของ ฟลิปฟลอปแต่ละตัว (ฟลิปฟลอป 1 ตัว จะแทนเลขฐานสองได้ 1 บิท) ขึ้นอยู่กับสถานะเอาท์พุตของฟลิปฟลอปตัวก่อนหน้า คือ ฟลิปฟลอปตัวแรกจะส่งสัญญาณ (Pulse ) จาก Q ไปกระตุ้น (Trigger) ที่ Clk ของฟลิปฟลอปตัวที่สอง และฟลิปฟลอปตัวที่สองจะส่งสัญญาณไปกระตุ้น (Trigger) ที่ Clk ของฟลิปฟลอปตัวที่สาม ไปเรื่อย ๆ ตามลำดับ การทำงานของวงจรแบบนี้มีลักษณะไหลเป็นระลอก จึงทำให้มีชื่ออีกอย่างหนึ่งว่า วงจรนับแบบริบเปิล (Ripple Counter) 3. Binary Counter Binary Counter เป็นวงจรบันเลขฐานสอง ตัวอย่างวงจรข้างล่างเรียกว่า วงจรนับเลขฐานสองแบบไม่เข้าจังหวะ (Asynchronous Binary Counter) ใช้ J-K ฟลิปฟลอป และ ฟลิปฟลอปทุกตัวต่อในอยู่ในสถานะ Toggle คือ ให้ J และ K เป็น "1" เพื่อเตรียมพร้อมที่จะให้ ฟลิปฟลอป เปลี่ยนสถานะเอาท์พุต เมื่อมีคล็อก (Clock) ชนิดขอบขาลง...
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...purchasing foreign goods. Countertrade grew in the 1980s as many other nations did not have the foreign reserves required to make imports. Countertrade increased yet again during the Asian financial crisis in 1997, as many currencies became devalued and had severely limited buying power. One example of countertrade was when the USSR paid Coca-Cola in vodka. Poland did the same with Coca-Cola but paid in beer. Countertrade can be separated into five variants: 1. Barter 2. Counter purchase 3. Offset 4. Buyback or compensation 5. Switch trading Barter is simply the direct trading of goods and or services between two parties with not monetary exchange. It is normally used in one-off deals with trading partners that are not trustworthy or that lack any credit. Barter is the simplest and most restrictive type of countertrade. Counter purchase is a mutual buying agreement which involves one party agreeing to buy a pre-specified amount of goods or services from a nation to which a sale is made. Offset is like counter purchase in that one firm agrees to buy goods with a certain percentage of the proceeds from the initial sale. The difference is that this party can conclude its transaction with any company or partner in the country to which the sale is made. A buyback involves a firm building a facility or making an investment in a country...
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