...(SEC) cartridge -Dual inline package (DIP) -Flip chip-PGA (FC-PGA) package -Pin grid array (PGA) Central Processing Unit (CPU)? -Interprets and carries out basic instructions that operate a computer. -Also called the processor. Components of the CPU? -Control Unit -Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) -Register Control Unit? -Directs and coordinates operations in computer. Control unit repeats four basic operations: -Fetch-obtain program instruction or data item from memory. (Taking Out From Memory) -Decode-Translate instruction into commands. (Understand It) -Execute-Carry out command. (Writing out It) -Store-Write result to memory. (Write the Result) Machine Cycle? -Four operations of the CPU comprise a machine cycle. -Also called instruction cycle. -Instruction time (I-time)-time taken to fetch and decode -Execution time (e-time)-time taken to execute and store. (I-time) (E-time) Fetch Decode Execute Store (Completed 1 Instruction) CPU’s Speed measured? -According to how many millions of instructions per second (MIPS) it can process. Two designs used for the CPU? CISC (complex instruction set computing) -Support large number of instructions -CPU executes complex instructions more quickly. RISC (reduced instruction set computing) -Supports smaller number of instructions -CPU executes simple instructions more quickly....
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...protect itself and other system components whereas Multimode Operation increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations. * System call provides the means for a user program to ask OS to perform OS tasks on the user program’s behalf. When a system callis executed, it is treated by H/W as a S/W interrupt. * Timer protects CPU resource from getting stuck by a user program. To ensure OS maintains control over the CPU, a timer can be set to interrupt the computer after a specified period. Use it to prevent a user program from running too long. 1.6 * A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work in the system. A program by itself is not a process. It is a passive entity, like the contents of a file stored on disk, whereas a process is an active entity. 1.7 * To improve CPU utilization and responsive time, general-purpose computers must keep several programs in memory, creating a need for memory management. 1.8 * OS provides a uniform, logical view of information storage. * Caching is an important principle, performed at many levels in a computer and an information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily. There are Hardware cache and Software-controlled cache. * Cache Coherency in Multiprocessor Environment. Must make sure that an update to the value of A in one cache is immediately reflected in all other caches where A resides. 1.9 * Protection refers to any mechanism for controlling the access of processes...
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...We will take a brief in depth tour of the CPU, memory, processing, registers, bus and data moving to the bus. I will touch on these concepts and processes throughout the paper in hopes to clearly detail out how each works and their importance. CPU The first thing we will discuss is the function of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) and its components. There are three primary components that make up the CPU, these are the ALU or the arithmetic/logic unit, the control unit (CU) and memory. The two components that collectively make up the CPU are the ALU and CU. Let’s take a look at the diagram above and I will explain what it all means. The logic and arithmetic unit is where all the data is stored and calculations are performed. The control unit basically interprets and controls all executions and processes instructions that it is given by other input types. In a typical CPU there is a I/O (input-output) interface which handles the input and output of data when it passes through the CPU to other devices that handle input/output data. The CPU architecture is defined by the major features it has, this is also known as ISA or instruction set architecture. It is these basics that include the number and types of registers, methods and how it addresses memory and basic design. With the typical technology advances that occur today, there have been several CPU architectures over the last few decades but only a small handful that last a long time. It is the evolution and the way...
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...(LATEST COMPUTER HARDWARE and LATEST MICROPROCESSOR) LATEST COMPUTER HARDWARE 1. Microsoft Desktop 3000 Reliable 2.4-GHz Wireless Enjoy the 2.4-gigahertz (GHz) wireless technology, which delivers a reliable connection with up to a 30-foot range, with virtually no interference. BlueTrack Technology Take advantage of BlueTrack Technology, which combines the power of optical with the precision of laser for remarkable tracking on virtually any surface. Snap-in Mini-Transceiver Plug the wireless receiver into your computer’s USB port when you’re ready to work. Then snap it into the bottom of your mouse when you travel. Media Center Control media playback from your keyboard. Hot Keys Gain one-touch access to Windows Media Player, email, home, calculator, My Documents, zoom, instant messaging and photos. Tilt Wheel and More Navigate fluidly with four-way scroll, five programmable buttons, rubber side grips and magnifier. Device Stage Quickly and easily access common tasks, including product information, registration, settings, and more for popular devices such as cell phones, cameras, printers, and mouse, keyboard, and webcam products. Battery Status Indicators Avoid being caught with a dead battery. The battery status indicator glows red when the battery is running low. PRICE: $36.99 2. Alienware TactX Headset Functionality: Obviously ideal for gaming, the Alienware TactX VoIP headset connects...
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...Chapter 1 - IT Essentials - PC Hardware & Software 1 Which CPU architecture uses a small set of instructions that are designed to be executed rapidly? CISC RAID RISC RISK SCSI 2 Which type of memory is primarily used as cache memory? DRAM RAM ROM SRAM 3 Which three devices are considered output devices? (Choose three.) fingerprint scanner headphones keyboard monitor mouse Printer 4 Which type of ROM can be reprogrammed with software while it is still physically installed in the computer? EEPROM EPROM PROM ROM 5 Which two characteristics are determined by the chip set on a motherboard? (Choose two.) maximum amount of memory that can be installed operating system compatibility type of connectors that will be on the motherboard keyboard layout 6 Refer to the exhibit. Which type of cable is shown in the graphic? FireWire Parallel Serial USB 7 Which important feature is offered by the USB standard? A single USB connection to a computer can support up to 255 separate devices. It offers rates of around 580 Mb/sec in low-speed mode. It allows up to 920 Mb/sec in the 2.0 version. It can supply power from the computer to devices. 8 What are the two connector types for the 1394a interface? (Choose two.) 2-pin 4-pin 6-pin 8-pin 9-pin 15-pin 9 Which type of memory is unable to have the contents modified? DRAM RAM ROM SRAM 10 Refer to the exhibit. What is the maximum length of the cable presented in the graphic, which is commonly used for connecting a computer...
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...highly optimized set of instructions”, as opposed to the more complex instructions in other architecture systems. When a RISC architecture, which simplifies the instructions, is coupled with other methods, such as pipelining the system has a CPI of one cycle (Masood, 2011). Cache Memory improves system performance by storing recently accessed data not in the main memory, but in a high-speed intermediate memory location. This reduces the time used to fetch these instructions. Modern microprocessors use various levels of cache memory to perform the cache memory functions. According to the Network Dictionary L1 Cache is a primary that is built into the CPU. This memory stores copies of the data that has been most frequently used in the main memory locations. L2 cache is a secondary cache location that is separate from the CPU and L1 cache. This secondary cache stores a subset of the contents of the main memory. Most recently L3...
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...NT1110 Mon Night CPU Block Diagram cache cache Controller Controller ALU ALU ALU ALU Front side Bus Backside busbaba Backside Bus Controller * Controller manages the basic functions of the CPU, as well controlled communication between the motherboard and other functions of the CPU * Communication between the Controller and the ALU is the Internal bus 32 bit wide data bus * Communication between the cache and the ALU and the Controller is the backside bus * Cache uses SRAM static ram, it’s faster but more expensive and it holds memory without being refresh. * There are three types of Cache L1, L2, and L3. * L1 cache is on the processor chip. * L2 cache is inside the processor housing but not on the processor chip. * L3 cache is inside the processor housing but further away from the processor chip * ALU Logical Unit: After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored * CONTROLLED UNIT Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible FOR Cordinating...
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...Chapter 4 Objectives Differentiate among various styles Differentiate among various styles of system units of system units Identify chips, adapter cards, and other Identify chips, adapter cards, and other components of aamotherboard components of motherboard Describe the components of aaprocessor and how Describe the components of processor and how they complete aamachine cycle they complete machine cycle Identify characteristics of various personal Identify characteristics of various personal computer processors on the market today computer processors on the market today Define aabit and describe how aaseries of bits Define bit and describe how series of bits represents data represents data Explain how programs transfer in Explain how programs transfer in and out of memory and out of memory Differentiate among the various Differentiate among the various types of memory types of memory Describe the types of expansion slots and Describe the types of expansion slots and adapter cards adapter cards Explain the difference among aaserial port, aa Explain the difference among serial port, parallel port, aaUSB port, and other ports parallel port, USB port, and other ports Describe how buses contribute to aa Describe how buses contribute to computer’s processing speed computer’s processing speed Identify components in mobile computers Identify components in mobile computers and mobile devices and mobile devices Chapter 4 The Components of the System Unit Next The System Unit ...
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...Solution of Chapter 1 1.1 In a multiprogramming and time-sharing environment, several users share the system simultaneously. This situation can result in various security problems. a. What are two such problems? b. Can we ensure the same degree of security in a time-shared machine as in a dedicated machine? Explain your answer. Answer: a. Stealing or copying one’s programs or data; using system resources (CPU, memory, disk space, peripherals) without proper accounting. b. Probably not, since any protection scheme devised by humans can inevitably be broken by a human, and the more complex the scheme, the more difficult it is to feel confident of its correct implementation. 1.2 The issue of resource utilization shows up in different forms in different types of operating systems. List what resources must be managed carefully in the following settings: a. Mainframe or minicomputer systems b. Workstations connected to servers c. Handheld computers Answer: a. Mainframes: memory and CPU resources, storage, network bandwidth. b. Workstations: memory and CPU resources c. Handheld computers: power consumption, memory resources. 1.3 Under what circumstances would a user be better off using a timesharing system rather than a PC or single-user workstation? Answer: When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware is fast, time-sharing makes sense. The full power of the system can be brought to bear on the user’s problem. The problem can be solved faster...
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...location of operand data. The type of data may be addresses, numbers, characters and logical data. A common architectural feature in processor is the use of stack, which may or may not be visible to the programmer. Stacks are used to manage procedure calls and returns and may be provided as an alternative form of addressing memory. The basic stacks operation are PUSH, POP, and operations on the top one or two stack locations. Stacks typically are implemented to grow from higher addresses to lower addresses. The machine instructions set provides the functional requirements for the CPU: Implementing the CPU is a task that in large part involves implementing the machine instructions set. MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS CHARACTERISTICS The operation of the CPU is determined by the instructions it executes referred to as Machine Instructions or computer instructions The collection of different instructions that the CPU can execute is referred to as the CPU’s instruction set. * Machine instructions operate on data. The important general categories of data are : * Addresses (locations) * Numbers (integer/fixed point and floating point/decimal * Characters (text/ character strings) * Logical data (1s-0s) Elements of Machine Instructions Operation...
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...really even attempted to take one apart. I know more about the software side of computers so this may not make a lot of sense. First things first, the motherboard. I chose the ASUS Z97M-Plus. It supports a CPU socket type LGA 1150. It uses DDR3 memory, has 4 x 240 pin memory slots, dual channel, and supports up to 32 GB of memory. It has one 3.0 x 16 PCI-e slot, one (x4 mode) 2.0 x 16 PCI express slots, and 2 PCI slot. It uses Serial ATA (SATA) 6 GB/s, 1 M.2, and the SATA RAID is 0/1/5/10. The onboard audio is Realtek ALC887 with eight channels. LAN chipset is Intel 1218-V and the maximum LAN speed is 10/100/1000Mbps. This particular motherboard comes with a limited 3 year warranty on parts and labor. Now that all of that is out of the way let me tell you a little bit about why I chose this particular motherboard after looking at so many that my eyes starting crossing. A Z97 motherboard is fully unlocked for overclocking endeavors and it hosts passive VRM cooling which allows for better heat dissipation. The Z97M-Pkus is a micro-ATX board and even though it only supports 1 PCI-e 3.0 x 16 slot and 1 PCI-e 2.0 x 16 slot, it makes for a quality motherboard for single-GPU configurations. Next comes the CPU. I chose the Intel Core i5-4690K. The CPU socket type of the CPU is of course LGA 1150. The core name is Devil’s Canyon, it is Quad-Core, with 4 threads. The operating frequency is 3.5 GHz and...
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...A Look into Computer Memory Table of Contents Abstract 3 A Look into Computer Memory 4 Memory Hierarchy 4 Allocation Policies 5 Relocation Policies 6 Hit and Hit Ratio 6 Modern Computer Applications 7 Conclusion 7 References 8 Abstract The memory of a computer is a key component of the overall architecture of a computer. Several types of memory exist with the architecture of the computer which collectively is known as the memory hierarchy. The use of the memory hierarchy, placing and moving information, is effected by the allocation and relocation policies. How well these policies allow the processor to find the information it is looking for, known as a hit, is determined by the hit ratio. The modern processor available today relies on memory hierarchy to maintain their high performance. The paper will take a look at how these various pieces and policies work together within the architecture of a computer. A Look into Computer Memory Memory plays a key role in the modern processor. The memory hierarchy is the foundation for which the allocation and relocation policies function upon. These policies work to provide the needed information in the proper memory location to attempt to maintain a high hit ratio to avoid processor delay. Regardless of the speed of a modern processor, a low hit ratio adds delay to the high performance processor. Memory Hierarchy Memory in a computer varies in size, speed with regards to access time and, just as importantly,...
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...to the programmer, such as control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used. 1.2 Computer structure refers to the way in which the components of a computer are interrelated. Computer function refers to the operation of each individual component as part of the structure. 1.3 Data processing; data storage; data movement; and control. 1.4 Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor. Main memory: Stores data. I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment. System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O. A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus, consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all the other components attach. 1.5 Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and...
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...On-Chip Networks from a Networking Perspective: Congestion and Scalability in Many-Core Interconnects George Nychis†, Chris Fallin†, Thomas Moscibroda§, Onur Mutlu†, Srinivasan Seshan† † Carnegie Mellon University {gnychis,cfallin,onur,srini}@cmu.edu moscitho@microsoft.com § Microsoft Research Asia ABSTRACT In this paper, we present network-on-chip (NoC) design and contrast it to traditional network design, highlighting similarities and differences between the two. As an initial case study, we examine network congestion in bufferless NoCs. We show that congestion manifests itself differently in a NoC than in traditional networks. Network congestion reduces system throughput in congested workloads for smaller NoCs (16 and 64 nodes), and limits the scalability of larger bufferless NoCs (256 to 4096 nodes) even when traffic has locality (e.g., when an application’s required data is mapped nearby to its core in the network). We propose a new source throttlingbased congestion control mechanism with application-level awareness that reduces network congestion to improve system performance. Our mechanism improves system performance by up to 28% (15% on average in congested workloads) in smaller NoCs, achieves linear throughput scaling in NoCs up to 4096 cores (attaining similar performance scalability to a NoC with large buffers), and reduces power consumption by up to 20%. Thus, we show an effective application of a network-level concept, congestion control, to a class...
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...INTRODUCTION: Shared memory is a memory that can be used by multiple programs to avoid redundant copies or to provide communication among them. In other words we can say that, it is a technique, in this exchanging of data in process of program is done more quickly than by reading and writing using the services of OS. It is the fastest form of IPC available. A number of basic issues in the design of shared memory system have to be taken into consideration. Once the memory is mapped into the address space of the processes that are sharing the memory region, no kernel involvement occurs in passing the data between the processes. It refers to a multiprocessing design where several processors access globally shared memory. These include access control, synchronization, protection and security. Access control determines which process accesses are possible to which recourses. Synchronization constraints limit the time of access from sharing processes to shared resources. Protection is a system feature that prevents processes from making arbitrary access to resources belong to other processes. At the memory module the requests arrive through its two ports. The simplest shared memory system consists of one memory module that can be accessed from two processors. Classification of shared memory: Depending on the interconnection of network, a shared memory leads to system can be classified as :- • UMA: - Shared memory...
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