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Discourse

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Ди́скурс или диску́рс (фр. discours) в общем смысле — речь, процесс языковой деятельности.
В специальном, социогуманитарном смысле — социально обусловленная организация системы речи, а также определённые принципы, в соответствии с которыми реальность классифицируется и репрезентируется (представляется) в те или иные периоды времени. Это специальное значение слова «дискурс» впервые ввёл Эмиль Бенвенист, противопоставляя discours (речь, привязанная к говорящему) и récit (речь, не привязанная к говорящему).
Термин часто используется в семантике, социолингвистике, дискурсивной психологии, в различных вариантах теорий дискурса (например, теория дискурсаЭрнесто Лакло и Шанталь Муфф) и аналитического подхода к изучению дискурса, в частности в дискурсном анализе, дискурсивном анализе, дискурс-анализе (и его разновидности — критическом дискурс-анализе), анализе дискурса и др.
Дискурсивный подход в лингвистических исследованиях занимает все более прочные позиции. Внимание ученых привлекает живая динамика языка – язык в действии. Изучение процессов коммуникации, речевого взаимодействия и речевого поведения для успешной коммуникации находятся в центре внимания многих наук, в их числе и лингвистическая наука.
В исследованиях авторов учитывается стратегический аспект высказывания, лежащий в основе построения определенного типа дискурса, что позволяет говорящему субъекту правильно построить свою речь и путем воздействия на респондента достичь ожидаемого результата.
Термин «дискурс», несмотря на отсутствие его четкого определения, прочно вошел в обиход наук, имеющих в качестве предмета исследования функционирование языка (лингвистика, семиотика, психология, философия, социология, литературоведение), что во многом обусловлено стремлением к мультидисциплинарости, синтезу научных результатов, полученных в различных областях. Наиболее общие подходы разграничения понятий «текст» и «дискурс» включают противопоставление «устный» (дискурс) - «письменный» (текст); «процесс» - «продукт (результат)»;
Уровень текста (выявление и анализ лингвистических особенностей и дискурсивных характеристик исходного текста), уровень дискурса (выявление и анализ особенностей соответствующего исходному тексту дискурса), уровень коммуникации (выявление и анализ функций и типовых свойств коммуникации и коммуникативных стратегий, выраженных в исходном тексте) составляют основу применения переводческих стратегий. При условно неизменной в процессе письменного перевода ситуации действительности на данную «основу» накладываются две группы стратегий:
1) микростратегии перевода (уровень текста);
2) макростратегии перевода
(уровень дискурса и коммуникации).

Общая типология переводческих стратегий, таким образом, включает следующие компоненты: генеральная стратегия перевода (стремление переводчика как можно полнее понять переводимый текст и найти ему наиболее точное соответствие в языке перевода); гиперстратегии перевода (этапы процесса перевода); макростратегии перевода (уровень дискурса и коммуникации); микростратегии перевода (уровень текста).
Средства, состоящие в использовании некоторых языковых категорий в дискурсивных целях акта коммуникации, могут быть сгруппированы, по мнению П.Шародо (1992), по четырем способам организации: Коммуникатив (Enonciatif), Дескриптив, Нарратив, Аргументатив. Каждый из них имеет базовую функцию и принцип организации. Базовая функция соответствует дискурсивной цели замысла речи говорящего, а именно: — Что высказать? — Что описать? — Что рассказать? — Что аргументировать? 40Принцип организации дублируется для Дескриптива, Нарратива и Аргументатива. В самом деле, каждый из этих способов предлагает одновременно организацию «референциального мира», что приводит к логикам построения этих миров (дескриптивная, нарративная, аргументативная) и к организации его реализации, что приводит к реализациям описания, повествования, аргументации.
Коммуникатив имеет особый статус организации дискурса. Во- первых, в качестве основных составляющих Коммуникатива выступают: 1) отношение говорящего к собеседнику; 2) отношение говорящего к сказанному (к пропозиции); 3) отношение говорящего к третьему лицу. Во-вторых, Коммуникатив вторгается в область реализации каждого из трёх других способов организации дискурса, при этом нередко подчиняя себе другие (Костюшкина 2003б). В лингвистической литературе мы сталкиваемся с анализом не дискурса вообще, а некоего конкретного дискурса – для термина «дискурс» характерно сочетание с агентивным или генеративным определением: публичный дискурс, политический дискурс, дискурс власти, советский дискурс, дискурс оппозиции, дискурс инакомыслия, дискурс террора, дискурс перестройки, дискурс национальной безопасности, патриотический дискурс, дискурс ответственности, мы-дискурс, дискурсы претендентов на власть, дискурс Жириновского, дискурс борьбы, предвыборный дискурс, дискурс предубеждений, секстистский 41дискурс, расистский дискурс, дискурс об иностранцах, феминистский дискурс, дискурс рынка, дискурс потребительской культуры, дискурс надежды и отчаяния
Дискурс, в понимании К.Я.Сигал, создается всей системой языковых средств, эксплицирующих в том или ином речевом высказывании некую общую когнитивную стратегию и является лингвоспецифическим явлением, обладающим развернутым в текст набором языковых единиц, демонстрирующим правила их образования и использования. Таким образом, дискурс, находясь в тексте и будучи «квантом» текстовой материи, отображает доминанты когнитивного стиля говорящего.
Начальным этапом при дискурс-анализе является уровень конкретной языковой реализации дискурсивного содержания, т.е. уровень текста. Но при дискурсивном анализе устанавливается другая цель, отличная от целей герменевтического подхода к тексту: высказанное в тексте содержание рассматривается с точки зрения надиндивидуального говорения, анализ направлен на поиск, выявление, описание тех имплицитных предпосылок текста, которые позволяют рассматривать этот текст как отражение не индивидуальной, а надиндивидуальной, коллективной речевой практики. Однако проникновение в глубинную структуру текста невозможно без обращения к специфическому социально-историческому контексту. Подобная практика в анализе как текста, так и дискурса уводит исследователя назад, к основам структурализма, где языковые явления исследовались с позиций среднего (правильного) носителя языка. Выявление надиндивидуального можно с оговоркой принять как один из этапов анализа и текста и дискурса. Как раз специфическое в тексте и дискурсе проявляется либо в индивидуальном либо в национально-лингво-культурном опыте. В.В. Богданов рассматривал речь и текст как взаимосвязанные аспекты дискурса, мотивируя тем, что не всякая речь поддается «текстовому перекодированию», но и не любой текст можно «озвучить». Это широкое понимание дискурса, являясь нормой в философии и 51психологии, все чаще встречается в лингвистической литературе (Прохоров 2003, Мальковская 2004, Красных 2003, Формановская 2002 и др.). По мнению И.А. Мальковской, дискурс можно рассматривать как метод раскрытия реальности на основе рассудочного, обоснованного предшествующими суждениями опыта, что и есть коммуникация, обращенная к другим. Предшествующий опыт, на котором строится дискурс, позволяет открывать коды предыдущих сообщений и на их основе делать следующий шаг

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