...DNA Replication 1. DNA Replication take place by breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases of the two antiparallel strands. The unwinding of the two strands is the starting point. 2. Helicase (enzyme) splits the two strands. The initiation point, where the splitting starts, is called “origin of replication”. The structure that is created is known as “Replication Fork”. 3. Molecules of single-strand binding protein stabilize the unwound template strads. 4. Topoisomerase helps relieve the strain by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands. 5. RNA Primase (enzyme) binds in the initiation point of the 3’ – 5’ parent chain. It can attract RNA nucleotides which bind to the DNA nucleotides of the 3’ – 5’ strand due to the hydrogen bonds between the bases. RNA nucleotides are the primers (starters) for the binding of DNA nucleotides. 6. DNA Polymerase III (enzyme) link up the free, matched nucleotide triphosphates by removing the terminal di-phosphate and using energy so released to carry out the very non-spontaneous chemical reaction of joining the phosphate to the deoxyribose sugar. 7. The strand that is synthesized continuously is called the leading strand and the strand that is synthesized in short pieces is called the lagging strand. The short pieces of synthesized DNA, which make up the lagging strand are called the Okazaki fragments. 8. Only one primer is required for DNA Polymerase III to synthesize the leading strand. 9. The...
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...DNA replication Name Institution 16th November, 2015 DNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Every strand of DNA is comprised of a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogenous base fortified together into a structure called a nucleotide. Several nucleotides together form DNA. DNA Replication The DNA double helix is typically extremely stable: the two DNA strands are bolted together immovably by an expansive number of hydrogen bonds framed between the bases on every strand. To be utilized as a format, the twofold helix should first be opened up and the two strands isolated to uncover unpaired bases. In DNA replication, two strands of DNA separate, and every different strand shapes a layout to make another strand. The replication procedure results in the development of two indistinguishable particles, containing one strand from the first bit of DNA and one recently incorporated strand. DNA contains all guidelines for making protein in the body and information around a man's physical attributes, for example, eye shading and hair shading. The protein in a DNA atom is encoded by a gene, which determines the sorts of amino acids that must be assembled to make a protein. In DNA replication, there is an arrangement of single-stranded tying proteins that are utilized to balance out the isolated strands. The DNA replication procedure begins with the cells utilizing what is termed a "protein machine" called the "Origin Recognition Complex" or ORC. The ORC starts as a bow-shaped protein...
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...Abstract There were many causes of the Great Depression, some of which include “The Great Crash” of the stock market, lack of spending by the average person, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act and a massive drought in the Mississippi Valley. From this nation-wide crisis came Social Security as we know it, the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority Act, the creation of the SEC and stricter banking and stock market regulations. Overall the Great Depression had a large impact on The United States that can still be seen today. Causes of the Great Depression In January of 1929 an editorial (Encyclopedia of American Studies, 2010) said “It has been twelve months of unprecedented advance, of wonderful prosperity. If there is any way of judging the future by the past, this new year will be one of felicitation and hopefulness.” This was obviously not the case. When the stock market crashed on October 29, 1929, it was possibly the greatest contributing factor to the depression. Some believe, though incorrectly, that the “Great Crash” is the same as the great depression. The stock market crash had people scared to spend money. People no longer bought nearly as many products which led to a drop in production, which in turn led to layoffs in the work force. Coupled with these layoffs, were huge debts being defaulted on by stock holders; this all inevitably to the failure or closing of many banks. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act was passed in June 1930 to protect...
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... Multiple Myeloma Practical Apllication of dsdsd Nikolitsa Vagenas Azusa Pacific University Case Study: Multiple Myeloma What is Multiple Myeloma? What is it Yiayia are you going to be okay? I remember saying these exact words after finding out that my grandmother had been diagnosed with cancer, this was about seven years ago. When she was first diagnosed with cancer, she made sure that the whole family knew right away and this took a toll on my family. Before this had all happened, my Yiayia, Greek for grandmother, knew she had multiple myeloma she complained about having back pain. We just assumed it was from her osteoporosis, which causes bones to become fragile (Osteoporosis Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Little did we know what was happening to my grandmothers body, a good family friend, Dr. Cleo Williams, recommend that she go to the doctors to get a compression fracture, which is caused by osteoporosis, and for cancer (Boden, 2005). Not long after the consult, she went to the doctors to have surgery for the compression fracture to prevent further pain that, “usually occurs in the front of the vertebra, collapsing the bone in the front of the spine and leaving the back of the same bone unchanged” (Boden 2005). While, the doctors were doing the compression fracture surgery they looked further into her spine and found she had early stages of multiple myeloma. The doctors then ran every test possible to see where the cancer cells were, so...
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...3.06 activity essay Mutations are changes in a genetic make up , thus mutations come in many different forms as so mangy this can go wrong in the process of duplicating DNA and causing these mutations. Many mutations contribute to many different things , BRC1 and BRC2 contributing to breast cancer. BRC1 is much more dangerous as she has a 18% chance of dying versus BRC2's 2.8% chance of death. All of the woman in this survey had a family history with breast cancer thus having a history with BRC1 and BRC2 , giving there off spring a higher chance of having mutations and breast cancer. a total of 90 women in tho survey had a preventative surgery wether it was removing the breast or their ovaries. However in order to draw conclusions about the effectiveness I would have to see there results after compared to the women who didn't take the precaution surgeries. The age diagnosis tells me the majority of women find out if the have great cancer in the ages from 40 - 69 , mostly in the middle ages 50-59. Cancer cells are given to off spring through their parents most of the time , thus giving down the family traits , the more off spring people with cancer cells have the more present day people would have cancer cells and so on , Cancer is not something we could stop , If we were to kill every one with cancer cells or the possibility of cancer cells we would be killing off almost all of our population so the despite cancer related surgeries and deaths the cancer cell will live through...
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...chemicals used to make plastic containers are a health hazard to humans. A particular focus is placed on whether the chemical ingredient in polycarbonate and polysulfone plastic called Bisphenol A, BPA abbreviated, act as estrogen and effect estrogen levels. Research is continually being conducted since possibly harmful BPA is found in almost 90% of plastic containers ( ). Although many shelved plastic products are labeled BPA-Free, plastic containers still run the risk of leaking harmful BPA into drinking water and food when BPA is broken down by exposure to heat ( ). Research has not yet proven how BPA is harmful; That is to say, definitive results have not shown whether BPA directly causes cancer, or if BPA is a catalyst for cancer cell replication. Regardless of how BPA is harmful, the possibility of poisonous contamination to all plastic exposed products poses a threat to human health and has resulted in case studies like Mclean’s “What’s in My Water Bottle?” Mclean’s case study addresses multiple experiments that are conducted to determine how much BPA is in certain plastics, and how the BPA effects estrogen levels that in turn effect cancer cells, reproductive organs, and lipid metabolism. In 1976 the Safe Drinking Act was passed setting limits on the amount of contamination that could enter the public drinking supply ( ).Thus, consumers trustingly eat and drink from plastic containers daily, and only research on the possibility of harmful contamination can protect and...
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...When the two strands of DNA double helix are separated, each can serve as a template for the replication of a new complementary strand, producing two daughter molecules each of which contains two DNA strands with an antiparallel orientation. The enzymes involved in DNA replication process are template-directed polymerases that can synthesize the complementary sequence of each strand with extraordinary fidelity. This complex leads to the local denaturation and unwinding of an adjacent A + T rich region of DNA. The interaction of proteins with the origin is what defines the start site of replication and provides a short region of single stranded DNA essential to initiation of synthesis of the nascent DNA strand. Then helicase binds and allows for processive unwinding of double stranded DNA into single stranded DNA. As helicase unwinds the DNA, DNA single stranded protiens bind and stabilize the single stranded DNA. The polymerase III holoenzyme binds to template DNA as a part of a multi protein complex that consists of several polymerase accessory factors. DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA only in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction and only one of the several different types of polymerases is involved at the replication fork. As the DNA strands are anti parallel, the DNA polymerase functions asymmetrically. On the leading (forward) strand, the DNA is synthesized continuously. On the lagging strand (retro strand) the DNA is synthesized in short (1-5 kb) fragments. These DNA fragments are called...
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...BIOLOGY 311CStudy Guide for Exam #3 Cell communication/signal transduction: What is a signal transduction pathway? Give an example of a signal transduction pathway in unicellular organisms. In plants and animals (multicellular) describe how direct cytoplasmic connections and cell-cell recognition occur between neighboring cells. Distinguish paracrine from endocrine signaling. Define ligand. Be prepared to describe G-protein coupled receptors and G-protein signaling in some detail. Know general features or receptor tyrosine kinases and ion gated channel proteins. How do steroid hormones cause changes in target cells? What is a transcription factor?What is a phosphorylation cascade? Know the function of kinases and phosphatases.What is a second messenger? Know the role of cAMP in signaling. What is protein kinase A? Relate each of these to G-proteins. What are the advantages of a multi-step transduction pathway? What is apoptosis? When is apoptosis used? Cell cycle/mitosis: Define genome, chromosome, chromatin, somatic cell and gamete. If shown a diagram of a replicated chromosome (with 2 sister chromatids), be sure you can identify and describe the function of the centromere, kinetochore, and chromatid. Draw the cell cycle identifying interphase, mitosis, G1, S, G2 and cytokinesis. Be sure you know the order and what the cell is doing in these phases. Be prepared to step through the events of mitosis. What are the stages? Describe the...
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...their mistakes or concepts. 3. If the tutorial questions are not yet covered in the lecture, it should be carried forward to the next tutorial. [Source : Final Examination Sept 2015] 1. A bacterium consisting of a radioactive DNA molecule is transferred into a non-radioactive medium and left to replicate n times. At the end of the process, a total of four DNA molecules are formed. Out of the four DNA molecules, two are composed of one radioactive strand and one non-radioactive molecules. The other two are composed entirely of non-radioactive strands. (i) Determine the number of times, n replication takes place that results in the formation of four DNA molecules. (1 mark) (ii) State the replication model indicated by the experiment and briefly explain about it. (3 marks) (iii) Identify the protein(s) involved in the initiation of DNA replication that are responsible for: (A) Unwinding parental double helix at replication forks. (1 mark) (B) Relieveing overwinding strain ahead of replication forks. (1 mark) (C) Stabilizing single-stranded DNA until it is used as a template. (1 mark) (D) Starting an RNA chain using parental DNA as template. (1 mark) [Source : Final Examination April 2015] 2. Figure 2.1 shows a piece of nucleic acid undergoing a cellular process. Figure 2.1 Answer the following questions based on Figure 2.1. (i) What process...
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...Nucleic Acids Sally Contreras Program & Start Date: BSN March 2015 Student ID: 000569724 Cell# (818) 387-7112 Los Angeles, CA -- Pacific Time DNA Replication The process by which a DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. 2 DNA Ligase Seals the gap between Okazaki fragments. 3 Enzymes in DNA Replication • Helicase: unwinds the DNA allowing the single strands to be copied • Primase: produces RNA molecules • RNA Primer: starting point for DNA synthesis • DNA Polymerase I: removes RNA primers and replaces it with DNA • DNA Polymerase III: enzyme who is mainly copying • DNA Ligase: seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments • Okazaki fragments: short DNA fragment formed on the lagging template strand • Single-stranded Binding Proteins: binds singlestranded DNA and prevents premature binding to another DNA strand. 4 Transcription and Translation 5 Transcription and Translation 1. The enzyme Helicase unwinds and unzips the DNA strand then the enzyme RNA Polymerase (the enzyme that produces primary transcript RNA) uses one of the DNA strands to make an RNA copy of that one called the messenger RNA or mRNA. 2. Then mRNA travels to the cytoplasm where it is received by the ribosome. The mRNA must receive a cap and a Poly A Tail for protection from the cytoplasmic enzymes. The ribosome serves as the binding site for the mRNA and tRNA (RNA that helps decode an mRNA sequence into a protein. 3. For each codon of the...
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...DNA Replication Jennifer Wilson Biochemistry GRT1 Margie Hayes January 18,2015 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks (nucleotides) are made of phosphate, sugar and one of four types of nitrogen bases. The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. These nucleotides are either purine or pyrimidine based, called nucleotide subunits. The purine base are adenine and guanine. The pyrimidine based are thymine and cytosine. The DNA strand is formed when the nucleotides are linked into chains, with the phosphate and sugar group alternating. As you can see in the diagram above, adenine bonds with thymine and guanine bonds with cytosine. These bonds take place by hydrogen bonding. DNA Replication Fork Topoisomerases are enzymes that regulate the overwinding or underwinding of DNA, shown as the yellow wire above. Topoisomerases catalyze and guide the unknotting and unkinking of DNA. The double-helical configuration that DNA strands naturally reside makes them difficult to separate, so they must be separated by helicase enzymes. Helicase separates the strands of a DNA double helix by using the energy from ATP hydrolysis so replication can begin. The replication bubble allows replication to take place in 2 directions. Primase is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers are the starting point for DNA synthesis at...
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...definition of DNA replication. Dna replication is when they copy a double stranded dna molecule. The bases are matched and edited to match their partner. Each strand acts as a main component for the replication What is the importance of replication? Why do cells replicate their DNA before dividing? They replace their data so the could get rid of the old dna so that the cell may be able to be healthy. Use the clues and words to help you write the vocabulary terms from the chapter in the blanks. You may use a word once or not at all. 3. tip of a chromosome telomere 4. enzyme that joins nucleotides to make a new strand of DNA Dna Polymerase 5. virus that infects bacteria bacteriophage...
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...molecules surrounded by protein capsid or envelope * nucleic acid: DNA or RNA, composed of single/double strand (genes encode coat proteins, proteins of regulation of transcription) * capsid: protein coat of virus, viral genome packaging * envelope: lipid bilayer that contains proteins * enveloped viruses: genomes contain genes for synthesis of envelope proteins * viral genomes= virus-specific enzymes (nucleic acid replication) * non-living organism/not “alive” - lack that properties of life (no independent reproduction, no metabolic system= no energy, dependent on host cells 2. Why viral infections are usually difficult to treat with drugs, and exceptions to this general principle. * viruses= hidden in host cells, use host cell machinery to replicate (no obvious viral product to be targeted by drugs/antibiotics - not like bacteria) * symptoms can only be relieved not treated - natural immune function treats — some viruses deadly symptoms= prevention w/ vaccinations (e.g. measles, polio) * Viruses using own polymerases (e.g. RNA viruses - influenza)= more obvious targets - antiviral drugs to treat 3. Whether viruses are always pathogenic. * not all viruses= pathogenic - some benefit hosts e.g. some non-pathogenic viruses protect humans from pathogenic viruses * “protective” viruses - interfere with replication/functions of pathogenic viruses * some viruses defend host cells (e...
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...Biochemistry GRT-1 (Roche Diagnostics PCR Diagnostic Kits, United States of America, 2014) The Role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of information within the cell Kristie French, BS, RN, PCCN Morganfield— Kentucky T: 270-952-5228 DD: 812-485-4649 E: kfrenc3@wgu.edu Summary This report has been prepared to discuss the role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of genetic information within the cell. The report is broken down into four sections in order to illustrate this information. Section 1 discusses and illustrates DNA replication at the biochemical level. This section includes a diagram that with representation of the components involved. Section 2 discusses and illustrates the role of the enzyme Ligase in the replication of DNA. Section 3 illustrates and discusses the role of mRNA in transcription and translation. Finally, Section 4 discussed the effects of RNA polymerase inhibition related to the poisonous effects of the death cap mushroom. Contents Summary 2 DNA Replication at the Molecular Level 4 Diagram 1: Process of DNA Replication at the biochemical level 4 Components of DNA Replication 4 The function of enzymes in DNA Replication 4 Enzymes involved in DNA Replication 4 The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Diagram 2: The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Components involved 5 The role of mRNA in transcription and translation 6 Diagram 3: The role of mRNA...
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...DNA & RNA DNA Replication is semi conservative; meaning each strand of DNA is a template for new strands of DNA. DNA helicase is an enzyme that starts the process of DNA replication by opening the double helix stranded unwinding it. The Single stranded binding protein helps prevent DNA from attaching during the replication process( Hudon-Miller, 2013). DNA polymerase III is an enzyme that produces new strand, only reads in the 3’ to 5’ and adds new DNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction by forming replication bubbles and attaching at each replication fork. Because it can only add nucleotides to the 3’ direction there would be 2 different kinds of replication stands. The leading strand would be continuous towards the replication fork needing 1 RNA primer to initiate synthesis and the lagging strand would be fragmented away from the replication fork needing RNA primer to synthesize multiple times. Once RNA primer completes synthesis in the new DNA strand, DNA polymerase I fills the fragments with new nucleotides. DNA ligase is part of the last step of DNA. Its enzymes seal the Okazaki fragments together in creating a new DNA strand (Ahern & Rajogopal). In order to create new proteins for our bodies to perform its functions, DNA would have to go through a process called Transcription. Transcription is a process in which DNA is copied by mRNA. This takes place in the nucleus of the cell.DNA uses the help of RNA polymerase II which is an enzyme that initiates the synthesis...
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