...DNA Technology DNA research has come a long way since Friedrich Miescher first isolated it in 1869 and the discovery of DNA’s double helix structure by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. Surely they would have never imagined what scientists can do with human DNA today. Cloning, gene therapy, stem cell research, and genetically modified foods all began with the discovery of DNA and probably would have been unimaginable in anyone’s eyes in the 1800’s. But scientist’s today are manipulating genes and DNA in an effort to prevent disease, cure disease, and feed the world. History was made on July 5, 1996 when Dolly the sheep was born. She was the first mammal to be cloned from adult DNA. By splitting two-cell embryos apart, scientists were able to produce two genetically identical organisms. Cloning is a process of making genetically identical organisms through non-sexual means. There are three types of cloning, DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. DNA (or molecular) cloning consists of removing a small piece of the DNA strand and uniting it with a plasmid which reproduces itself to create multiple copies of the same DNA code. The copied DNA can then be grown in a suitable host cell where the recombinant vector can then be reproduced along with the host cell DNA. DNA cloning is typically used in biological experiments and technological applications where large scale protein production is needed. (NRC, 2002) Reproductive cloning...
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...has attempted to imitate and manipulate phenomena that nature has had billions of years to develop and perfect. Cloning is a perfect example of such attempts. In nature, cloning is the process by which genetically identical organisms are produced by way of asexual reproduction. With some success, scientists have been working on ways to reproduce this phenomenon through biotechnology, in a laboratory setting. In biotechnology, cloning refers to the process used to create copies of DNA, cells, or entire organisms. Each of these forms of cloning will be described in this paper, which will then explore the issues surrounding cloning from biological, technological and public health standpoints. Molecular cloning, or DNA cloning, is the process of making multiple copies of an isolated sequence of DNA fragments (Strachan & Read, 1999). This form of cloning is most often used in biological research, but is also used in more practical applications such as genetic profiling and protein production. In practice, techniques such as this are often used producing vaccines and researching cures to common ailments. Molecular cloning isolates a desired segment of a DNA and links this fragment to a primary DNA sequence that is capable of replicating itself and the fragment DNA linked to it. Once this new DNA sequence has been formed, it is then inserted into a cell which will make identical genetic copies of the...
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...debate over the ethics of cloning began. In particular, reproductive cloning was widely discussed because it could possibly be accomplished through somatic cell nuclear transfer to clone entire humans (“Cloning Fact Sheet”). For medical, social, religious, and political reasons, there are both proponents and opponents of reproductive human cloning and its ethics. Currently, the best way to deal with reproductive cloning is to ban its use because there are many negative consequences that could arise from using cloning technology. There are two different types of human cloning: therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. The goal of the former is to obtain stem cells from embryos that can be used to study the growth of the human body and to find possible cures and treatments for various diseases (“Cloning Fact Sheet”). The purpose of the latter, on the other hand, is to create a whole human being through cloning. Specifically, reproductive cloning is done using somatic cell nuclear transfer and can theoretically produce a human that has the same exact nuclear DNA as another individual. Currently, though, this technology has only been used to clone animals and has not yet been successful in cloning humans (“Cloning Fact Sheet”). The process constituting somatic cell nuclear transfer begins with the extraction of nuclear genetic material from the cell of an adult donor. Then an egg is deprived of its nucleus, and the DNA taken from the...
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...and How It Works Genetic Engineering is the process of manually adding new DNA to an organism. The goal is to add one or more new traits that are not already found in the organism, and to enhance or modify the organism’s characteristics. The process starts by identifying a gene that controls the desired trait and using various chemicals to extract it from the DNA strands. An insertion package is prepared that includes several unrelated genes that lets the trait gene survive in an alien organism. Then, the package is forced into the host organism’s cells which is attempted using several various vectors. The most common for plants is bacteria; the insertion package is hooked onto the bacteria’s...
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...What is Cloning? Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is identical. Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of many examples. Or they can be made in the lab. Below, find out how natural identical twins are similar to and different from clones made through modern cloning technologies. How Is Cloning Done? Many people first heard of cloning when Dolly the Sheep showed up on the scene in 1997. Artificial cloning technologies have been around for much longer than Dolly, though. There are two ways to make an exact genetic copy of an organism in a lab: artificial embryo twinning and somatic cell nuclear transfer. 1. Artificial Embryo Twinning Artificial embryo twinning is a relatively low-tech way to make clones. As the name suggests, this technique mimics the natural process that creates identical twins. In nature, twins form very early in development when the embryo splits in two. Twinning happens in the first days after egg and sperm join, while the embryo is made of just a small number of unspecialized cells. Each half of the embryo continues dividing on its own, ultimately developing into separate, complete individuals. Since they developed from the same fertilized egg, the resulting individuals are genetically identical. Artificial embryo twinning uses the same approach, but it is carried out in a Petri dish instead of inside the mother. A very early embryo is separated into individual cells, which are allowed...
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...2.2.1- Outline the differences between reproductive and non-reproductive cloning Reproductive Cloning: production of offspring which are genetically identical to the mother or the other offspring Non- Reproductive Cloning: Use of stem cells in order to generate replacement cells, tissues and organs which may be used to treat particular diseases 2.2.2- Describe the production of natural clones in plants using the example of vegetative propagation in elm trees Vegetative Propagation: The production of structures in an organism that can grow into new individual organisms These offspring contain the same genetic information as the parent so they are clones of the parent. In Elm Trees: The elm tree is adapted to reproduce asexually following damage to the parent plant. This happens by separation of some body part of the plant body and its development into a new plant. In an elm tree this occurs by: Root Suckers/ Basal Sprouts are removed from a tree in autumn and are grown in a nursery bed. They appear within 2 months of destruction. The suckers grow from meristem tissue in the trunk which is close to the ground (area of least damage) 2.2.3 – Describe the production of artificial clones of plants from tissue culture Tissue Culture: Large scale cloning 1- A small piece of tissue from the plant is taken to be cloned. It is called an explant 2- In aseptic condition, the explant is placed on a nutrient growth medium which...
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...Two of Us: Cloning Cloning didn’t make a significant impact in culture or science until the first mammal was cloned in 1997. Cloning is the process in which an exact genetic copy of an organism is made. The first successful cloning was of Dolly the sheep. Though this was a huge stride for the scientific community, there has been many public riots against this action. Over the years scientists have researched and there has been several successful cloned animals; however, there have been many unsuccessful clonings. Throughout its history, cloning has overcome many obstacles. Scientists have discovered three types of cloning, anyhow, it is still not well received in society today. The founders of modern genetics, took the first steps in re-evaluating the previous theories used for cloning. August Weismann, Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at the University of Freiburg, proposed that cells can be manipulated by similar genetic organisms (Beale 2). Soon after Weismann’s theory was given public attention, two other scientists tried experimenting with his theory on manipulating similar organisms. During this time of trial and error, most of the animals used were small, such as: frogs, bird eggs, mice, and...
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...complex mixtures of DNA. Cloned genes also make it easier to study the proteins they encode. Because the genetic code of bacteria is identical to that of eukaryotes, a cloned animal or plant gene that has been introduced into a bacterium can often direct the bacterium to produce its protein product, which can then be purified and used for biochemical experimentation. Cloned genes can also be used for DNA sequencing, which is the determination of the precise order of all the base pairs in the gene. All of these applications require many copies of the DNA molecule that is being studied. Gene cloning also enables scientists to manipulate and study genes in isolation from the organism they came from. This allows researchers to conduct many experiments that would be impossible without cloned genes. For research on humans, this is clearly a major advantage, as direct experimentation on humans has many technical, financial, and ethical limitations. Importance for Medicine and Industry The ability to clone a gene is not only valuable for conducting biological research. Many important pharmaceutical drugs and industrial enzymes are produced from cloned genes. For example, insulin, clotting factors, human growth hormone, cytokines (cell growth stimulants), and several anticancer drugs in use are produced from cloned genes. Before the advent of gene cloning, these proteins had to be purified from their natural tissue sources, a difficult, expensive, and inefficient process. Using recombinant...
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...Chapter 1. introduction to physical anthropology Adaptation – An anatomical, physiological or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Anthropology – The study of human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology that includes: cultural, archeology and physical or biological anthropology. Applied anthropology – the practical application of anthropological and archeological theories and techniques. Artifacts – Objects or materials made or modified for use by modern humans and their ancestors. Biocultural evolution – The mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture. The concept that biology makes culture further influences the direction of biological evolution. Bipedally – on two feet walking habitually on 2 legs. Culture – behavioral aspects of adaptation including technology, traditions, language religion, marriage. Data – Facts from which conclusions can be drawn scientific information. Empirical – relying on experiment or observation. Ethnographies – Detailed descriptive studies of human societies – ugsaatnii zui Ethnocentrism – Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one’s own culture – undestnii deerengui uzel Evolution – A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species. Forensic anthropology – An applied anthropological approach that deals with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with coroners, police...
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...To Offspring Introduction Anatomy refers to the science dealing with the description and identification of the structure of organs, tissues and organisms. It studies the body parts structures and how they relate with each other; it enables us to understand the relationship between the bones, muscles, ligaments and tendons. On the other hand, Physiology is the science which studies the functions of tissues, cell, organisms and organs. Physiology combines both physics and chemistry in its explanations. Physiology therefore, refers to the study of how the body functions. The reproductive system of male organs is specialized for: the production, transportation and maintain the sperm (these are the male reproductive cells) and also included are the semen, which is the protective fluid. Another function for the male reproductive organs is to discharge the male reproductive cells into the female reproductive tract. They also secrete and produce male sex hormones. The female anatomical structure is more complicated than the males’. There are many distinct anatomical structures comprising both internal and external tracts of the female genitalia; corpus spongiosum and labia minora (vestibular), urethra, G-spot, Halban’s fascia and peri-urethral glans, cervix, anteria erogenous zone and pubococcygeus muscle. Cutaneous blood vessels, nipples, sweat and salivary glands are some of the many peripheral non-genital anatomic structures in the response of female sexuality. Analysis –...
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...Even though there are many ways that cloning can help to improve lives, there are still some people who worry that it could do the opposite. This sparks a debate over the moral and legal issues of cloning, and how it could deprive humans of their lives in certain ways of cloning such as reproductive cloning. They worry that embryos and fetus’ will be grown for their stem cells, which is essential for cloning. "Several countries have enacted legislation to ban human cloning.”(Cloning) as well as “several states have passed their own laws prohibiting such research.”(Cloning) This “raises a number of challenging scientific, legal, philosophical, and ethical issues.”(Cloning) These examples show multiple Government’s views on cloning. And how...
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...conclusions. The feat, cited by science magazine as the breakthrough of 1997, also created uncertainty over the meaning of "cloning" - a term traditionally used by scientists to describe different processes for duplicating biological material. The most common form of cloning is called reproductive cloning. There are different types of cloning and cloning technologies that can be used for other purposes besides producing the genetic twin of another organism. A basic understanding of the three different types of cloning are : (1) recombinant DNA technology or DNA cloning, (2) reproductive cloning, and (3) therapeutic cloning. I learned a lot from this article something that I found was really interesting is this process called "somatic cell nuclear transfer". This process is where the scientist transfer genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus, and then its genetic material, has been removed. The reconstructed egg containing the DNA from a donor cell must be treated with chemicals or electric current in order to stimulate cell division then placed inside the mother and continues with a normal birth. This changes my opinion on cloning cause I never knew the cloning process has already been done on animals before and seeing that we share 93% of the same genetic makeup of monkeys there is no telling the limitations of cloning. This article connects to my biology class because in class I learned that with cloning we could bring back our dead family...
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...Snap! Sperm cell Sexual reproduction occurs when offspring result from the joining (fusion) of a male reproductive cell and a female reproductive cell. These special reproductive cells are called gametes and are made in the reproductive organs of organisms. In animals, male gametes are called sperm and female gametes are called ova (singular = ovum) or egg cells. Reproductive systems are designed to bring the male and female gametes together. The joining of sperm and egg cells is called fertilisation. This process mixes the genetic material from the nucleus of each parent together and results in the formation of a zygote. Human sperm cells surround an ovum. MEETING OUTSIDE … In some animals, especially those that live or breed in water such as fish and amphibians, fertilisation occurs outside the female's body. This is called external fertilisation. In this situation, the female releases her unfertilised eggs into the water to be fertilised by the male's sperm, which are also released into the water. MEETING INSIDE … In animals that live and breed on land, internal fertilisation occurs. This keeps the gametes inside the body so there is no chance of dehydration occurring. In this situation, sperm are introduced into the female by a process called copulation (or sexual intercourse). Some differences between internal and external fertilisation Sexual reproduction involves fusion of gametes. Page 184 Ova Like sperm, ova are produced by a special type of cell division...
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...surface of gametes keep sperm cells from fertilizing eggs of the wrong species. EX. Salmon, sponges, corals, sea urchins, some amphibians INTERNAL FERTILIZATION – a male deposits sperm inside a female’s body, where fertilization occurs. After copulation, animals may lay hard-shelled eggs or bear live young. B. DEVELOPMENT IS INDIRECT OR DIRECT DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGISTS – study the stages of an animal’s growth as cells specialize and interact to form tissues, organs, and organ systems. Differentiation and pattern formation involve complex interactions between the DNA inside cells and external signals such as hormones, interactions regulate formation of each structure. Homeotic Genes- develop control development in humans and all other animal species. DIFFERENTIATION – the process by which cells in organs activate unique combinations of genes to acquire their specialized functions. PATTERN FORMATION – process by which genes determine the overall shape and structure of the animal’s body. (EX. #...
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...The Negative and Positive Ecological Impacts of Technology Introduction In today's society more people are working longer hours and utilizing more technology in their everyday life. As a result of these longer hours and increased use of technology, more energy is being consumed. (Hayden and Shandra 575) The impact that this is having on the environment is substantial in both negative and positive ways. It is hard to deny the benefits modern technology has produced for the world, in industry and in everyday life. With more and more technological breakthroughs, there have been many positive ecological impacts. However, it is also hard to deny that there are considerable negative impacts as well. Supporters of a work reduction scheme maintain that the reduction in hours will have a positive effect on the environment and the raw materials that are used on a daily basis. (Hayden and Shandra 576) Though the argument that a reduction in hours will result in a better quality of life is largely agreed upon, the theory that a reduction in hours will reduce the negative impacts on the environment is still one of contention as there is no concrete evidence to back it up. (Hayden and Shandra 576) To counter this theory, there are those who argue that a reduction in hours will not result in a redution in damage to the environment. Each year, technology is making advances in producing low energy products that will reduce the damage to the environment. It is argued that with these advances...
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