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III.- Sector financiero. A- Quiebras
La insolvencia se define alternativamente como la falta de activos suficientes para satisfacer todas las deudas o la incapacidad para saldar deudas pendientes. Conforme a lo establecido por artículo 123 de la Ley de Insolvencia (Insolvency Act) de 1986.
El inicio de las crisis bancarias puede explicarse por una variedad de razones. Algunas de ellas, pueden tener relación con la forma en que la estructura del sector bancario evoluciona o se orienta. Las posibles causas se clasifican, según provengan de circunstancias macroeconómicas, factores microeconómicos o regulatorios, malas estrategias de los bancos individuales, fallas operativas en los bancos, o fraude.

El futuro de cualquier banco problema tendrá que ser considerado, ya sea en el contexto de una salida estratégica para establecida por el Banco de Inglaterra o en el de las condiciones para recibir apoyo oficial. El cierre o la liquidación pueden resultar inevitables, por lo que alternativamente una estrategia de supervivencia debe incluir una recalendarización de las deudas, una fusión, la adquisición (por otro banco, aunque, en último término, lo sea por el gobierno), la privatización (si es actualmente de propiedad estatal), o alguna otra forma de recapitalización o reestructuración.

Hay que mencionar dos aspectos generales, que deben vigilarse:
- Si se busca que el banco siga funcionando, no será suficiente manejar únicamente el problema de los saldos, o sean las deudas pendientes no redituables. También es muy importante que el flujo de los negocios futuros sea lucrativo y ello puede requerir de cambios sustanciales en la estrategia, administración y cultura.

- Cualquier solución que signifique nuevos propietarios debe tomar en cuenta su calidad, en lo que se refiere a capacidad técnica para supervisar el banco, integridad personal, y recursos financieros. Pocas veces resulta apropiado para las autoridades limitarse simplemente a entregar el control al primer comprador que se presenta con recursos para cubrir el precio de reserva de la adquisición. En el caso de la privatización bancaria, debe tenerse especial cuidado para no caer en la trampa de suponer que la propiedad privada, equivale necesariamente a una administración eficaz. En todas estas resoluciones, el tratamiento de los activos no redituables puede ser de gran importancia, ya que dejarlos en el balance equivale a atar una piedra alrededor del cuello del banco, pues los escasos recursos administrativos tendrían que dedicarse a cobrar estas deudas o a participar en el manejo o liquidación de los deudores, papel para el cual la administración del banco puede no estar bien preparada. Una parte del personal del banco puede ser responsable de algo del problema, o tener conexiones personales con el deudor, en cuyo caso no son los más indicados para llegar a la solución del mismo. Además, el deudor puede deber dinero a varios bancos, por lo que la estrategia de abordar el caso colectivamente, a través de un organismo resolutorio contribuye a maximizar la recuperación. Tal vez sea posible establecer ciertos arreglos para que las autoridades de gobierno cuenten con una especie de interés accionario en el banco problema, y que las utilidades que obtenga si el banco se recupera, puedan eventualmente utilizarse para costear los diversos gastos incurridos al apoyarlo.
Por otra parte, puede argumentarse que el propio banco es el que tiene un mejor conocimiento de sus clientes y se encuentra en una posición ventajosa para recuperar los préstamos pendientes, en cuyo caso los préstamos incobrables, deberían quedarse en el balance.

Respecto a dos grandes quiebras en el decenio que se inició en 1990, el BCCI y el Barings, Reino Unido ha sido mucho más exitoso que muchos otros países al evitar grandes crisis o quiebras en los bancos más importantes. Además, los costos de hacer frente a los problemas bancarios, sufragados con recursos públicos y mediante el esquema de seguro de depósito han sido muy reducidos. El costo total en el balance del Banco de Inglaterra por los diversos incidentes de los años 90 son reservas que se estiman actualmente en 9.5 millones de libras esterlinas (menos de 0.02% del PIB anual) y sin recibir apoyo del presupuesto gubernamental. En cierto número de casos de poca importancia, se ha recurrido al Fondo de Protección de Depósito que cuenta con financiamiento de los bancos y no de recursos del sector público.

Rescate de Bancos problemas

Un principio básico adoptado por el Banco de Inglaterra es que el apoyo sólo debe otorgarse si hay un riesgo significativo de contagio. Que pudiera desestabilizar el sistema financiero. Por ello se otorgó ayuda-durante los primeros años de la década de los 90 a un grupo de pequeños bancos, pero no a dos grandes bancos que eran evidentes ejemplos aislados de malversación; es así como en determinadas circunstancia se debe permitir que un banco quiebre. Otra lección es que una acción rápida y oportuna para apoyar bancos problema, frecuentemente de manera reservada, ya sea para su cierre o recuperación, puede ayudar a evitar crisis más amplias sin que signifique fuertes desembolsos de recursos públicos.

El último gran ejemplo de rescate por parte del gobierno Británico fue nacionalización de los bancos con problemas en 2008, lo cual explica por qué la banca británica ha salido relativamente bien parada de la crisis financiera, a pesar de que Reino Unido sufrió la peor crisis bancaria de todos los socios de la UE, con la única excepción de Irlanda. El actual Gobierno ha decidido que la banca separe sus actividades de banca comercial y banca de negocios. Los británicos se vieron especialmente afectados por la crisis financiera debido a que esta afectó a dos sectores clave de su economía: la banca y el sector inmobiliario. En el aspecto bancario, lo que ayudo al país fue la decisión del Gobierno del laborista Gordon Brown de nacionalizar total o parcialmente los bancos más afectados, en particular Northern Rock, Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) y Lloyds (como consecuencia de la absorción de otro banco en crisis, HBOS, forzada por el Gobierno para evitar su quiebra). Se estima que el Tesoro ha tenido que invertir 124.000 millones de libras (155.000 millones de euros) en el rescate de entidades, con unas pérdidas para el contribuyente estimadas en 31.000 millones de euros por el Banco de Inglaterra.

IV Costos del Ajuste
Para enfrentar los desequilibrios macroeconómicos que presenta el Reino Unido. El responsable del Tesoro ha inicio desde el 2010 un camino hacia la impopularidad. El detonante es el mayor recorte en el gasto público desde la posguerra. Un plan de ajuste que se propone ahorrarle al Estado unos 95.000 millones de euros y reducir en cuatro años un déficit que este año rozará el 12% del PIB.
Los detalles del plan de austeridad incluyen despidos, rebajas y cancelaciones de beneficios sociales. Sólo se mantendrán las partidas de Salud, educación y la de ayuda al desarrollo, que el Gobierno mantendrá en términos reales en todo el país. Las demás reparticiones del estado sufrirán recortes sostenidos durante cuatro años. Algunos tan pronunciados como los de Justicia, Exteriores o Interior (24%) o como los de los ayuntamientos, cuyos gastos deberán encoger en un 28%.
El alcance del plan de ajuste, que se extenderá por todos los rincones de la Administración. Incluye medios de comunicación tal como La BBC afrontará un recorte del 16% en su presupuesto. El Estado recortará los subsidios del Estado del Bienestar en unos 20.000 millones de euros. Y a partir de 2012, la Reina debió apretarse el cinturón con un recorte de un 14%. Al margen de los recortes, se ha anunciado que los británicos se jubilarán a los 66 años a partir de 2020: es decir, cuatro años antes de lo previsto. Una cuarta parte de la reducción del déficit se logrará con subidas de impuestos. La más relevante la subida del IVA del 17,5% al 20%, que entro en vigor el 2011.
Temeroso de la impopularidad del plan de ajuste, el Gobierno ha intentado presentarlo como el fruto del despilfarro del gobierno anterior y no del celo ideológico monetarista. Así, ha expuesto las tres aspiraciones del plan: la reforma del Estado, la justicia social y el crecimiento.
Peligro de recesión, el plan de establecido es un empeño notable pero arriesgado. Sus detractores indican que los recortes ponen en peligro el crecimiento y quizá devolver al país a la recesión. Según Price Waterhouse, supondrá una merma de medio punto en el PIB de 2013 y mandará al paro a cerca de un millón de personas: la mitad en el sector público y la mitad en el sector privado.
El objetivo del plan es logar un equilibrio macroeconómico en el cual esta dispuestos a asumir para eliminar los números rojos de las arcas públicas y adelgazar el tamaño del Estado, lo cual a la larga ha buscado el despido de 500.000 funcionarios en el sector público. Pero la cifra es orientativa y dependerá de la negociación con los trabajadores, que deberán elegir entre menos sueldo o menos empleos.

--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. http://ec.europa.eu/civiljustice/bankruptcy/bankruptcy_eng_es.htm
[ 2 ]. http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/financialstability/Pages/default.aspx
[ 3 ]. http://www.cemla.org/PDF/ensayos/pub-en-63.pdf
[ 4 ]. http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2010/10/101020_runido_ajuste_economia_mj.shtml
[ 5 ]. http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/10/20/internacional/1287579057.html

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