The complexity of the human mind calls for a need for classroom teachers to have an understanding of the factors pertaining to effective learning and retention by pupils. Memory and recall can be influenced in various ways by abilities of sensory, working and long term memory; existing knowledge; and metacognitive processes. It is the aim of teachers to assist students in utilising these processes to the best of their ability. Among some ways this can be achieved are by providing opportunity to make mnemonic associations for themselves with knowledge which is familiar and by ensuring understanding exists surrounding the importance and usefulness of techniques such as elaboration. This essay will outline the above factors and suggest ways that teachers can assist students in effective learning and recall.
Memory can be defined as “an essential part of the information-processing system that governs learning and is of utmost importance for the maintenance of learning over time” (Langan-Fox, 2002, p110). The information processing system senses all external events, pays attention to what is relevant, encodes this information in line with prior knowledge and stores it in long-term memory until retrieval is required (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). The structures of memory can be classified into three groups: sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the site of initial processing and is where sensory information is processed very briefly, normally only for about one to three seconds. The capacity of sensory memory is very large enabling us to receive all sensory information in our environment however this is limited by the short duration information can be held (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). It is important that attention is directed to the appropriate place subsequent to information entering sensory memory so that it passes onto working memory where it can potentially be linked with long-term memory. Working memory acts as a processing point for information currently attended to but has a very limited capacity of about five to twenty seconds or nine items (Taylor, 1983). In order to hold information in working memory, the learner needs to employ tactics such as rehearsal, elaboration and chunking (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). To enable information transfer from working memory to permanent storage in long term memory, the learner must encode the information in a way that facilitates easy retrieval in the future. Storage requires time and exertion however once information is stored it is arguably in long-term memory indefinitely; there is unlimited capacity and duration (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010).
Knowledge is not only acquired as the result of what has been learnt, furthermore it influences and directs learning of new information (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). An individual’s existing knowledge and schema have been found to be highly correlated with later ability to recall novel information (Kan, Alexander, & M., 2008). Pre-existing schema form the foundation for what will be attended to, perceived and learned in regards to novel information (Kan et al., 2008). It has been found by Kan (2008) that external information which is novel to an individual but which is congruent with prior schema is automatically associated with this and therefore organised in memory via elaboration in a way which aids future recall. Toyota (2007) has similar findings where new information which is congruent with pre-existing schema is incorporated into long term memory and therefore more easily recalled, whereas incongruent information is not. He has labelled this the ‘semantic congruity effect’ (Toyota, 2007). Based upon this, it has been suggested that memory and recall are facilitated by the existence of knowledge which is corresponding to that being learned (Toyota, 2007). In other words, when individuals already possess schemata that represent particular concepts, new information regarding the same concept is more easily elaborated and tied to existing knowledge and therefore more easily remembered than that which is completely unfamiliar.
Metacognitive processes also aid in future recall of that which has been learnt and may be easier understood as monitoring and regulating functions of memory (Taylor, 1983). These processes can essentially be defined as “cognition about cognition” (Langan-Fox et al., 2002, p110). To clarify, metacognition is one’s thinking and awareness about processes such as attention and organisation that are activated during comprehension and learning (Langan-Fox, Armstrong, Balvin, & Anglim, 2002; Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). Activation of processes including rehearsal and elaboration which influence the movement of information from working to long term memory can facilitate selection, evaluation and other strategies which aid in enhancing memory (Taylor, 1983; Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). Miele et al., (2011) found that if people believed that what they were learning would later be remembered then it was more likely to be recalled accurately in the future. Similarly, increased memory has also been associated with belief that recall could be attributed to controllable factors such as the use of strategy rather than uncontrollable factors including ability (Langan-Fox, et al., 2002). Following on from this, links have been established between ability to recall information, use of strategy such as those mentioned above in learning and metacognition, particularly belief in mnemonic techniques (and their consequent utilisation) has been shown to improve future recall (Paris, Newman, & McVey, 1982).
In order to aid in the enhancement of long term memory and future recall through effective learning, teachers and students can employ the use of mnemonic and elaboration strategies. Mnemonic techniques are simply learning strategies that can be used to assist memory by creating relations between easy-to-remember concepts (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). Similarly, elaboration aids memory by forming meanings between similar concepts, particularly connecting novel information with that which is already stored in long term memory (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2010). The key factor that links these two techniques is the idea that new information which is meaningful or familiar to the learner is more likely to be easily integrated into long term memory and therefore recalled in the future (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Berkeley, & Marshak, 2010). Toyota (2007) found that when associations between new concepts and existing knowledge are drawn by learners rather than presented by teachers, they prove to be more effective and that these associated words allow for future recovery of new information. Further, it has been established that by providing learners with understanding and awareness of the effectiveness of learning strategies, specifically elaboration, they are more likely to utilise them in the future without guidance, therefore facilitating future recall (Paris, et al., 1982). The above examples provide support for the importance of prior knowledge to impart meaning upon new information and the influence that metacognition and awareness can have on future recall.
As discussed above, the importance of meaningfulness and familiarity is clear in the process of learning and memory. Teachers can aid students in achieving this by encouraging them to engage in self-directed learning and ensuring that they understand the effectiveness and proven success of strategies such as elaboration and mnemonic techniques. The various capabilities and confines of the structures of memory affect an individual’s ability to recall information however this is enabled when new information is related to that which is already stored in long term memory. In addition, knowledge and awareness of learning strategies can ensure that new information is effectively integrated and organised into long term memory in a way that facilitates future recall.

Reference list

Kan, I. P., Alexander, M. P. & , & M., Verfaellie. (2008). Contribution of prior semantic knowledge to new episodic learning in amnesia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(5), 938-944.
Langan-Fox, J., Armstrong, K., Balvin, N. & , & Anglim, J. (2002). Process in skill acquistion: Motivation, interruptions, memory, affective states and metacognition. Australian Psychologist, 37(2), 104-117.
Paris, S. G., Newman, R. S. & , & McVey, K. A. (1982). Learning the functional significance of mnemonic actions: a microgenetic study of strategy acquisition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 34, 490-509.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Berkeley, S. L. & , & Marshak, L. (2010). Mnemonic straegies: Evidence-based practice and Practice-based evidence Intervention in School and Clinic 46(2), 79-86.
Taylor, J. C. (1983). A dynamic model of memory for research on human information processing. Instructional Science 12, 367-374.
Toyota, H. (2007). Developmental changes in self-corrected elaboration effects on incidental memory. Japanese Psychological Research 49(3), 192-202.
Woolfolk, A & , & Margetts, K (2010). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, NSW, Australia: Pearson Education Australia.