Free Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

In: Business and Management

Submitted By dimacol7
Words 5929
Pages 24
An Exploratory Study Comparing Two Modes of Preparation for Online Teaching
Dawn Hathaway Priscilla Norton*
George Mason University

Abstract Few online high schools report requiring online education for their teachers, and few programs exist to prepare teachers to teach online (Smith, Clark, & Blomeyer, 2005). Professional development for online teachers continues to be a concern, and evaluative research that examines the effectiveness of various types of professional development is needed (Archambault & Crippen, 2009). The purpose of this exploratory study was to compare differences in online teachers’ selfreported frequency and confidence in performing online teaching tasks between teachers who had completed a comprehensive preparation program and teachers who participated in a one-day face-to-face workshop. Results found no differences between the groups and challenge conventions related to the nature and role of teacher preparation in online teaching. (Keywords: teacher education, online teaching, professional development, online learning, teacher preparation) nline learning at the K–12 level grows substantially each year. The issue is no longer whether or not online learning is or should occur, but rather how it is implemented. Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, and Rapp (2011) reported that, as of late 2011, online and blended learning opportunities exist for at least some students in all 50 U.S. states plus the District of Columbia and that there are now 30 states with full-time, multidistrict schools that enrolled an estimated total of 250,000 students in school year 2010–2011, for an annual increase of 25%. More than one-quarter (27%) of all high school students took at least one online
* Both authors contributed equally to this work.

O

class in 2009, and 21% of middle school students reported taking online classes in 2009 (Nagel, 2010). Yet only 4% of aspiring teachers reported they are learning how to teach online classes in their instructional methods courses (Project Tomorrow & Blackboard K12, 2010), and a persistent percentage of teachers across all years of experience (averaging at 39%) say they have no interest in teaching online (Project Tomorrow, 2011). This lack of interest in online teaching has resulted in a significant supplyand-demand problem for schools and districts. As stated in the Project Tomorrow (2011) report, “To meet the increased demand for online learning from students and parents, and to fully realize the potential for online learning as a tool to increase student graduation rates, we must address staff capacity issues” (p. 12). It is likely that most online teachers will come from traditional classrooms. Data from a study of 596 online K–12 teachers suggested that most current online teachers do, in fact, come from traditional classrooms and that face-toface teaching is a necessary prerequisite for teaching online (Archambault & Crippen, 2009). Archambault and Crippen (2009) concluded, “It seems logical that teachers who have a solid foundation in their content and pedagogical knowledge may have an easier transition to the online classroom” (p. 383). In addition to face-to-face experience, it is important for teachers to have experiences as online learners both in terms of what is happening in K–12 curriculum areas and as teachers and learners in online environments (Compton, Davis, & Mackey, 2009). The International Association of K–12 Online Learning (iNACOL) (2010) emphasized the need for online learning experiences in Standard F of its national
Volume 28 Number 4

standards for quality online teaching, highlighting the need for teachers to have experienced online learning from the perspective of a student. In this way, teachers are better able to develop and implement successful strategies for online teaching, to anticipate challenges and problems in the online classroom, and to understand the perspective of the online student. Although face-to-face teaching experience and personal online learning experience is necessary for quality online teaching, it may not be sufficient. There is growing recognition that online teaching requires special skills and considerations. According to Appel (2006), “There are aspects of online teaching that are dramatically different than conventional classrooms” (p. 1). Recognizing the centrality of providing quality professional development for online teachers, the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB, 2009) and iNACOL (2010) adopted standards that reflect three broad areas of competence: (a) academic preparation, (b) technology knowledge, and (c) nine standards grouped as online teaching and learning methodology, management, knowledge, skills, and delivery. By defining good teaching in an online environment, these standards can be used to shape teacher professional development, recruitment, supervision, and compensation (Trotter, 2008). Yet few online high schools report requiring online education for their teachers, and few programs exist to prepare teachers to work in online classrooms (Smith, Clark, & Blomeyer, 2005). Instead, a majority of teacher education programs address teaching with technology in a single, isolated technology course (Hargrave & Hsu, 2000; Kay, 2006). These single courses are already stretched wide to cover a multitude of technology-related topics and do little to address teaching

146

| Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education |

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

in an online environment. It is unlikely that a single technology course or even undergraduate programs as a whole can address the needs of those who teach in online environments. Archambault and Crippen (2009) state, “This puts a huge burden on the virtual schools themselves, which must provide professional development to get teachers up to speed with the nuances of teaching in an online environment” (p. 383). Evaluative research that examines the effectiveness of various types of professional development is needed (Archambault & Crippen, 2009). Sprague, Maddox, Ferdig, and Albion (2007) wrote, “Research is needed to help identify the skills that K–12 teachers will need to function as instructors in virtual schools of the future. This must include innovative teacher education programs that provide online practicum experiences” (p. 163). This need was echoed by Rice and Dawley (2009), who called for studies that examine “the outcomes of various PD [professional development] models in terms of the ability to meet the unique needs of K–12 learners, skill progression, and variations in impact on teaching practice” (p. 543). In fall 2003, the College of Education and Human Development (CEHD) at George Mason University (GMU) began a collaboration with three northern Virginia school divisions to create and deliver online high school courses in the core curricular areas. Under the guidance of a governing policy board, those teachers teaching online courses were required to complete a university-based 5-credit-hour eligibility requirement focusing on online teaching competencies. In summer 2010, as a result of budget cutting, collaborating school divisions were forced to cancel summer school offerings. With summer school options limited, enrollment in the online high school courses significantly increased, far exceeding the availability of eligible teachers. Responding to this demand, the policy board waived the university-based 5-credit-hour eligibility requirement and instead substituted a required one-day face-to-face workshop. Thus, a little more than half

of the teachers teaching in the summer of 2010 had participated only in the one-day workshop, whereas the remaining teachers who were teaching online courses had met the 5-credit-hour requirement. This represented a unique opportunity to explore the impact of two approaches to the preparation of online teachers. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine online teachers’ selfreported frequency and confidence in performing online learning tasks. Two questions guided this exploratory study: 1. Is there a difference between returning teachers’ and new teachers’ self-reported frequency of performed online teaching tasks (supporting student learning, supporting content learning, making learning adaptations, assessing learning, and managing learning processes)? 2. Is there a difference between returning teachers’ and new teachers’ self-reported confidence in performing online teaching tasks (supporting student learning, supporting content learning, making learning adaptations, assessing learning, and managing learning processes)? Methodology Participants During summer 2010, the GMU-CEHD/ school division collaborative contracted with 53 high school teachers to teach online courses. Twenty-four of those teachers had previously been contracted by the collaborative to teach at least one online course, were licensed in their subject area, and had completed the university-based 5-credit-hour eligibility requirement. These teachers met the Commonwealth of Virginia’s standard for highly qualified teachers. At the end of the summer session, these teachers were asked to complete an online survey. Twenty-one teachers completed the survey and constituted the study’s returning teacher group. To meet increased student demand, school divisions sent e-mail invitations soliciting teachers interested in teaching online summer courses and stipulating the need to meet the Commonwealth of

Virginia’s standard for a highly qualified teacher, to hold current licensure in the subject area, to be technology proficient, and to be willing to attend a one-day face-to-face workshop. The collaborative recruited 29 licensed high school teachers from local school divisions. At the end of the summer session, the collaborative asked these teachers to complete an online survey. Twenty-four teachers completed the survey and constituted the study’s new teacher group. Demographic data revealed that the two groups were similar in gender and years of classroom teaching experience. However, the groups differed in their reported online teaching experience and participation as online learners. In the returning teachers’ group, 80.9% reported prior teaching experience with the online high school collaborative. Conversely, 92% of the new teachers were teaching online for the first time, although 8% reported having taught online in other venues. The majority of returning teachers (85.7%) reported completing one or more online courses in how to teach online plus at least one other online course, whereas 9.5% had completed only online courses related to online teaching. This is reasonable, as the required preparation for teaching courses for the collaborative is conducted online. Conversely, 40% of the new teachers had never taken an online course, and 56% had some online experience but had not completed any online courses related to online teaching. One teacher (4%) reported completing an online course in online teaching. Table 1 (p. 148) presents demographic data. Instrument Given the unique opportunity to study the impact of two approaches in the preparation of online teachers, it was necessary that we create an instrument to fit the needs of the study. As a framework, we used a questionnaire developed by Smith (2009) that collected participant ratings of the frequency and importance of 76 online teaching tasks identified by collapsing competencies from the SREB (2009) and the National Education Association (NEA, 2006).

Volume 28 Number 4 | Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education | 147

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Hathaway & Norton

We reviewed the 76 online teaching tasks that Smith (2009) identified for relevance to the online course design model used by the collaborative. We eliminated items from Smith’s (2009) survey addressing online teaching tasks not required of study participants. This resulted in a list of 28 online teaching tasks organized into five categories: (a) supporting students learning (six items), (b) assessing learning (six items), (c) supporting content learning (seven items), (d) making learning adaptations (three items), and (e) managing learning processes (six items). Table 2 presents the 28 online teaching tasks. To elicit responses from participants about the frequency with which they believed they performed the 28 online teaching tasks, we adopted Smith’s (2009) 4-point Likert scale (“never,” “rarely,” “often,” “constantly”). To elicit responses from participants about their level of confidence in their ability to perform the online teaching tasks, we selected a 4-point Likert scale (“strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “agree,” “strongly agree”). We created two instances of the instrument—one for returning teachers and one for new teachers—using SurveyMonkey.com, and we sent links to teachers at the completion of the summer session. A cover e-mail requested completion of the instrument, assured anonymity, and thanked teachers. Twenty-one of the returning teachers (86%) and 24 of the new teachers (83%) returned completed surveys. Research Context The online courses. Returning and new teachers in this study taught online courses designed under the auspices of the GMU-CEHD/school division collaborative. Course design and development followed a unique design model instantiated as a series of Web pages linked to form a course. The collaborative developed a proprietary database management system in lieu of using an established course management system (Norton, 2003; Norton, 2005; Norton, 2006). Although a complete description of this model is beyond the scope of
148

Table 1. Participant Demographics

Gender Male Female Years of Teaching Experience None 1–3 years 4–7 years 8–12 years 13–20 years More than 20 years Online Teaching Experience Current teaching first experience Taught 1–3 non-initiative online courses Taught 1 or more initiative online courses Experiences as an Online Learner One or more online courses in how to teach online plus at least one other online course One or more online courses in how to teach online At least one online course but none in how to teach online Never taken an online course Experience as an Online Course Designer Yes No

Returning Teachers (n=21) 19.0 81.0 00.0 00.0 28.6 28.6 23.8 19.0 14.3 04.8 80.9 85.7 09.5 04.8 00.0 52.4 47.6

New Teachers (n=24) 12.0 88.0 00.0 16.0 28.0 20.0 20.0 16.0 92.0 08.0 00.0 00.0 04.0 56.0 40.0 12.0 88.0

this paper, the salient features included creating a “classroom of one” where a teacher and a student are linked in an independent dyad with no student-tostudent interaction, a series of problembased modules constituting each course, systematic processes and strategies embedded in each course to support self-regulation, extensive online resources to support the online teacher, and the centrality of student–teacher interaction and relationship building. Those teaching the courses had no course design responsibilities but were encouraged to use their judgment and teaching expertise to adapt courses to fit the needs of their individual learners and to supplement, adapt, and/or eliminate course materials as appropriate. In addition, those teaching the courses were not required to facilitate group discussions or group processes. The role of the online teacher might be best characterized as mentor or tutor. Returning teachers. Returning teachers possessed a current teaching license
Volume 28 Number 4

in the appropriate content area and had completed the required preparation— the university-based 5 credit hours— offered in an online format using the same design model used to develop the online high school courses. In these five courses, teachers were required to complete assignments in a “classroom of one” and engage in sustained, reflective conversations with veteran online teachers and graduates of the master’s or doctoral program in instructional technology. Reflecting upon the competencies identified in the literature, these five courses are: 1. Understanding Virtual Schools (EDIT 641) is designed to develop knowledge about the world of online learning for K–12 students and examines the history and current trends of online learning as well as the characteristics and learning needs of K–12 virtual learners. 2. Meet the Online Academy (EDIT 642) focuses on the design model that

| Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education |

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Preparation for Online Teaching

Table 2. Summary of Instrument Items

Categories Supporting Student Learning

Items Answering questions Fostering student motivation Fostering student time management Fostering student goal setting and goal attainment Modeling written communication skills Stimulating or sustaining student engagement Using informal Q&A to promote student understanding of concepts Asking questions Offering explanations Presenting examples Guiding understanding of concepts Fostering information use skills Fostering use of electronic or written sources Evaluating student products Evaluating student progress Using informal Q&A to assess student progress Providing procedures and grading criteria Providing interaction expectations with regard to teacher to student and student to teacher Providing feedback for assignments Adapting instruction to meet individual needs Adapting instruction based on student performance Developing intervention plans for unsuccessful students Contacting parents Contacting collaborative staff Providing students with basic software support Providing students with basic hardware support Maintaining records of communication with students Explaining course organization

Content Learning

Assessing Learning

exchanges. Workshop instructors gave participants a list of links to podcasts and Captivate resources that summarized and reinforced central strategies and structures associated with the online courses. No data, however, were available as to whether workshop participants followed up with these resources. During the workshop, the instructors encouraged participants to ask questions that clarified responsibilities and course materials. In addition, the instructors encouraged new teachers to e-mail the director and coordinator of the GMUCEHD/school division collaborative with questions whenever necessary. Results The first question of the study asked: Is there a difference between returning teachers’ and new teachers’ self-reported frequency of performed online teaching tasks (supporting student learning [SL], supporting content learning [CL], making learning adaptations [MA], assessing learning [AL], and managing learning processes [MP]? To answer this question, we performed t-tests. We found no statistically significant differences between returning and new teachers’ self-reported frequency of performed online teaching tasks in each of the five categories. For five of the categories of performed online teaching tasks, the effect size was small. For the category Managing Learning Processes, the effect size was medium. An examination of the means revealed remarkable similarity in returning and new teachers’ report of the frequency with which they performed online learning tasks. Table 3 (p. 150) summarizes the independent sample t-tests for reported frequency. The second question of the study asked: Is there a difference between returning teachers’ and new teachers’ self-reported confidence in performing online teaching tasks (supporting student learning [SL], supporting content learning [CL], making learning adaptations [MA], assessing learning [AL], and managing learning processes [MP]? To answer this question, we performed t-tests. We found no statistically significant differences between returning and new teachers’

Making Learning Adaptations

Managing Learning Processes

structures and introduces candidates to the online teaching process through role play. 3. Online Mentoring 1: Building Relationships (EDIT 643) focuses on the development of skills related to the role of building relationships for success in online learning. Candidates examine online interpersonal communications and ways to improve and/or refine those communications. 4. Online Mentoring 2: Promoting SelfRegulation (EDIT 644) targets skills related to promoting student selfregulation and strategies to improve and/or refine self-regulatory support for online learners. 5. Online Mentoring 3: Conceptual Learning (EDIT 645) targets skills related to supporting student abilities to develop conceptual and content understanding as candidates examine online communications related to conceptual learning and practice strategies to improve and/or refine those communications.

New teachers. For new teachers, the one-day workshop required prior to teaching the online courses was designed to introduce those competencies developed in the more comprehensive required preparation that the returning teachers had completed. Conducted as a one-day, face-to-face session, the workshop provided abbreviated information concerning the essence of the coursework usually required of online teachers. The workshop was structured to meet three goals: (a) review the instructional design model used to develop online courses (EDIT 643), (b) emphasize the importance of virtual conversations (EDIT 643) that stress a problem-centered and mastery learning focus (EDIT 642), and (c) build awareness of the structures and processes embedded in online courses designed to support student self-regulation strategies (EDIT 644 and EDIT 645). This workshop was predominantly informational, with lectures on concepts using examples of course materials and previous online student e-mail
Volume 28 Number 4

| Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education | 149

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Hathaway & Norton

Table 3. Independent-Sample t-Test on Reported Frequency

Returning Teachers (n=21) M Supporting Student Learning Supporting Content Learning Assessing Learning Making Learning Adaptations Managing Learning Processes
Likert Scale: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = often, 4 = constantly

New Teachers (n=24) M 3.37 3.11 3.32 2.86 2.44 SD .43 .46 .41 .78 .34 t (df = 43) .214 -.601 -.571 -.718 -2.175 p .855 .773 .189 .989 .359 Cohen’s d .06 .12 .17 .22 .65

SD .34 .47 .38 .65 .42

3.34 3.19 3.40 2.98 2.69

Table 4. Independent-Sample t-Test for Reported Confidence

Returning Teachers (n=21) M Supporting Student Learning Supporting Content Learning Assessing Learning Making Learning Adaptations Managing Learning Processes
Likert Scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree

New Teachers (n=24) M 3.45 3.58 3.51 3.36 3.33 SD .50 .47 .54 .60 .45 t (df = 43) -.379 .970 1.006 -.560 .619 p .101 .671 .823 .740 .705 Cohen’s d .11 .29 .30 .17 .18

SD .34 .45 .41 .65 .49

3.50 3.45 3.58 3.17 3.25

self-reported confidence in performing online teaching tasks in each of the five categories. The effect size for all six categories of performed online learning tasks was small. An examination of the means revealed remarkable similarity in returning and new teachers’ report of the confidence with which they performed online learning tasks. Table 4 summarizes the independent-sample t-tests for reported confidence. Discussion Results of this study were surprising to the researchers. Because of the lack of differences in the frequency with which teachers in both groups reported performing a range of teaching tasks and their confidence in their ability to perform these tasks, it would be remiss to not acknowledge the possibility that quality face-to-face teaching experience (Archambault & Crippen, 2009), subject-matter expertise (iNACOL, 2010), and online learning experience (Compton, Davis, & Mackey, 2009) may be sufficient for online teaching in some online learning models. Although SREB (2009) and iNACOL (2010) have proposed a robust set of standards that constitute quality online teaching and researchers have called for teacher
150

preparation that addresses the special skills and considerations characteristic of online teaching (e.g., Appel, 2006), results of this study found no differences between those with extensive preparation for teaching online and those with only a basic understanding of the course design, the structure of online course materials, and expectations and responsibilities. These findings reinforce the literature’s recognition of the importance of prior qualifications (such as subject-matter expertise, online learning experience, and experience teaching face to face). There are, however, several caveats to such a conclusion. First, because the study relied on self-reported data, it is not possible to distinguish between teachers’ perceptions and their behaviors. For instance, a new teacher might report frequently offering explanations but actually do it only four times a week, whereas returning teachers might report frequently offering explanations but actually do it eight times a week due to a better understanding of teacher–student interaction. Thus, there would be a practical difference in performance of teaching tasks even though selfreported perceptions demonstrated no differences. In addition, it may be
Volume 28 Number 4

that returning teachers’ comprehensive preparation provided them a better filter for self-assessment and a more rigorous vision of what performance ought to be, leading to estimations of frequency and confidence that may have been lower than their actual behavior but consistent with new teachers’ reports. Second, the unique design of the online courses and the expectations and responsibilities of teaching those courses focus on teaching tasks directly related to supporting student learning, content learning, and relationship building. These are tasks consistent with skills often associated with faceto-face classroom experience. Thus, the design itself influenced the performance of online teaching tasks. It may be that online teaching is influenced less by teacher preparation and more by the design of the online learning environment itself. For online learning models that center on teaching tasks, teacher preparation might need only to familiarize teachers with the design model and with responsibilities inherent in teaching in that environment while relying on teacher competence gained from face-to-face teaching experience. A one-day workshop might therefore be sufficient.

| Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education |

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Preparation for Online Teaching

Third, standards for online teaching include competencies that address technology competence, management and delivery, and course design. The online course design model for courses taught by teachers in this study did not focus attention on course design tasks, tasks related to management and delivery to groups of students, or those associated with unique technology-supported learning activities (e.g., leading and managing group discussion boards). Therefore, teachers were not asked to perform any of these tasks. Thus, this study did not address those competencies in the context of the two approaches to preparation for online teaching. It may well be that in other online learning models, preparation addressing these competencies would be highly valuable. Fourth, this study relied on established definitions of teacher competence. We assumed quality face-to-face teaching to be inherent in the Commonwealth of Virginia’s standard for designation as a highly qualified teacher. We assumed content expertise to be inherent in the guidelines for obtaining a valid license to teach particular subject areas. We assumed a teacher’s technology competence based on both self-identification and school divisions’ certification that employed teachers have met the Commonwealth of Virginia’s Technology Standards for Instructional Professionals (TSIPs). We made no attempt to verify the actual quality of study participants’ face-to-face teaching, content expertise, or technology competence. Study findings must be understood within the constraints of these assumptions. Finally, a survey methodology presents its own set of unique limitations and challenges. These include the validation of the instrument that is used, the limited extent to which findings can be generalized, and the weakness of self-reported data. The study’s instrument would benefit from a confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, although the response rate of this study (86% for returning teachers and 83% for new teachers) was high, the overall sample size was low, limiting ability to generalize to the overall population of K–12

online teachers. Because study findings are based on self-reported data rather than the measurement of observable behavior, they are susceptible to bias (Archambault, 2011). Despite these limitations, data now exist that begin the process of comparing the perceptions of online teachers who have completed a comprehensive preparation program with those who had minimal preparation for online teaching. Further Research This study compared online teaching tasks using self-reported data and found no differences between those with robust preparation and those with minimal preparation. To further understand the influence of various approaches to the preparation of online teachers, it is important to examine how online teacher preparation influences actual teaching behavior. Further research should qualitatively examine interactions between students and teachers to investigate implementation fidelity and the degree to which practices are actually implemented in online courses. National standards suggest that the preparation of online teachers should address a multitude of teaching tasks. Yet different models of online learning might require the performance of only a select group of online teaching tasks. Thus, the design model of online courses influences the types of teaching tasks required of the online teacher. There is a need to better understand how the design of online courses affects the performance of various online teaching tasks. Skill at some tasks may derive from prior face-to-face experience, prior personal online learning experience, and level of content expertise. Skill at other tasks may best be developed in online teacher preparation venues. Further research should examine the interactions between prerequisites for online teaching, online teaching tasks, online teacher preparation, and the online design model. Conclusion This study did not support the need for extensive online teacher preparation for those who taught in this online course design model and possessed the

prerequisites identified in the literature. If face-to-face experience, personal online learning experience, and content expertise are recognized as prerequisites to online teaching, it may be that preparation for online teaching is best targeted at the veteran teacher within the framework of professional development or advanced graduate study. It may well also be that such preparation for online teaching should focus on a triad of core competencies targeting: (a) understanding the unique attributes of online learning environments essential to effective online course design, (b) understanding and using a range of technology applications unique to online learning (e.g., course management systems, discussion boards, and synchronous virtual classroom tools), and (c) working with virtual groups and the associated concerns with teachers’/ learners’ online presence and teacher– learner and learner–learner interactions. It is possible and perhaps even likely that the development of this triad of core competencies reflect the domains where robust online teacher preparation is most necessary and relevant.
Dawn Hathaway is an assistant professor in the College of Education and Human Development in the Graduate School of Education at George Mason University. She works with K–12 practicing teachers in a master’s program in curriculum and instruction with an emphasis on the integration of technology in schools. She is also the professor-in-charge of the Integration in Technology in Schools online certificate programs and the Online Academy for Teachers online certificate program. Her research interests include K–12 technology-enhanced curricular design models, the design and assessment of online learning environments, and the use of design-based research methodologies. Please address correspondence regarding this article to Dawn M. Hathaway, Division of Learning Technologies, MSN 5D6, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030. E-mail: dhathawa@gmu.edu Priscilla Norton is a professor of education in the Division of Learning Technologies in the College of Education and Human Development at George Mason University. She is director of the Integration of Technology in Schools master’s program as well as the division’s advisor for doctoral programs. She is author or co-author of numerous articles and two books. She also serves as director of GMU’s virtual high school collaborative. Her research interests include

Author Notes

Volume 28 Number 4 | Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education | 151

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Hathaway & Norton

design strategies and processes as they influence technology teacher education, online learning environments for both teachers and high school students, and the design of K–12 classroom learning. Please address correspondence regarding this article to Priscilla Norton, Division of Learning Technologies, MSN 5D6, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030. E-mail: pnorton@gmu.edu Appel, J. (2006, September 29). New standards aid in virtual instruction. eSchool News Online. Retrieved from http://www.flvs.net/ areas/aboutus/NewsArchives/Documents/ Headlines/2006/ESN.Oct%2006.pdf Archambault, L. (2011). The practitioner’s perspective on teacher education: Preparing for the K–12 online classroom, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 19(1), 73–91. Archambault, L., & Crippen, K. (2009). K–12 distance educators at work: Who’s teaching online across the United States. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41(4), 363–391. Compton, L. K., Davis, N., & Mackey, J. (2009). Field experience in virtual schools—to be there virtually. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 17(4), 459–477. Hargrave, C. P., & Hsu, Y. (2000). Survey of instructional technology courses for preservice teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8(4), 303–314. International Association for K–12 Online Learning (iNACOL). (2010, August). National standards for quality online teaching. Retrieved from http://www.inacol.org/ research/nationalstandards/NACOL%20 Standards%20Quality%20Online%20 Teaching.pdf

References

Kay, R. (2006). Evaluating strategies used to incorporate technology into preservice education: A review of the literature. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38(4), 383–408. Nagel, D. (2010, June 29). Report: Online learning nearly doubles among high school students. T.H.E. Journal. Retrieved from http:// thejournal.com/articles/2010/06/29/reportonline-learning-nearly-doubles-among-highschool-students.aspx National Education Association (NEA). (2006, November). Guide to teaching online courses. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/ onlineteachguide.pdf Norton, P. (2003). COPLS*: An alternative to traditional online course management tools (*patent pending). Technology and Teacher Education Annual, 2003. Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Distributed by Allyn & Bacon Publishers. Norton, P. (2005). Scaffolding online learning: The ART of mentoring. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2005 (pp. 2025–2032). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Norton, P. (2006). The online academy: A unique approach to virtual high schooling. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2006 (pp. 2356–2363). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Project Tomorrow (2011, May). The new 3 E’s of education: Enabled, engaged, empowered—How today’s educators are advancing a new vision for teaching and learning. Retrieved from http://www.tomorrow.org/speakup/pdfs/ SU10_3EofEducation_Educators.pdf

Project Tomorrow & Blackboard K12 (2010). Learning in the 21st century: 2010 trends update. Retrieved from http://www.oracle.com/us/ products/applications/k-12-2010-trendsupdate-163469.pdf Rice, K., & Dawley, L. (2009). The status of professional development for K–12 online teachers: Insights and implications. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 17(4), 523–545. Smith, R. D. (2009). Virtual voices: Online teachers’ perceptions of online teaching standards. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 17(4), 547–571. Smith, R., Clark, T., & Blomeyer, R. L. (2005). A synthesis of new research on K–12 online learning. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates. Retrieved from http://paisleydlp. org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Smith_ Synthesis_of_Research.18354259.pdf Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) (2009, March). Guidelines for professional development of online teachers. Retrieved from http:// publications.sreb.org/2009/09T01_Guide_ profdev_online_teach.pdf Sprague, D., Maddux, C., Ferdig, R., & Albion, P. (2007). Online education: Issues and research questions. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(2), 157–166. Trotter, A. (2008, Feburary 29). Voluntary online-teaching standards come amid concerns over quality. Education Week. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/ articles/2008/03/05/26online_ep.h27.html Watson, J., Murin, A., Vashaw, L., Gemin, B., & Rapp, C. (2011). Keeping pace with K–12 online learning: A review of state-level policy and practice. Vienna, VA: North American Council for Online Learning. Retrieved from http://kpk12.com/cms/wp-content/uploads/ KeepingPace2011.pdf

152

| Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education |

Volume 28 Number 4

Copyright © 2012, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education), 800.336.5191 (U.S. & Canada) or 541.302.3777 (Int’l), iste@iste.org, iste.org. All rights reserved.

Copyright of Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education is the property of International Society for Technology in Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Similar Documents

Premium Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

...dilemma faced by Antonio. In this case study Antonio work in the Empress Luxury Lines and he faced dilemma regarding the ethic in the work place. Kevin Pfeiffer works as a computer technician and his roles to estimated damage due to recent thunderstorm. Antonio requested a computer systems upgrade ever since he assumed his post two years ago. Phil Bailey, who was Kevin Pfeiffer’s supervisor, orders Kevin to reports the estimate of damage. Kevin reports about the $15,000 worth of damage so his supervisor and the chief financial officer both were unhappy with it. After that Phil Bradley called Kevin Pfeiffer to go back to work and haul all the underground wire and the systems prior to the arrival of the insurance adjustor. If Kevin perform this task than it would be damage of more than $500,000 which is beyond the actual estimate damage of $15,00.Kevin refused to perform the task and Matt called up to perform this task for them. Antonio faced dilemma such as what to do in this situation. He has mainly two choices such as a) to take a lawful action or b) compromise with person ethics. Antonio Melendez not feels any confident regarding bypass the chief financial officer Roger. Antonio Melendez not sure about his decision because he knows well very that there are no mechanisms was in place to report wrong-doing internally, and no protections were available for whistle-blowers. He had knowledge about the Empress Luxury Lines successfully defraud the insurance company in the past. Antonio...

Words: 1159 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

...------------------------------------------------- Top of Form What is the Commonwealth? The Commonwealth is an association with 54 member states in 2003, which provide support to each other, and work together toward worldwide goals. The Commonwealth is described as a "family" of nations, firstly linked together in the British Empire, and now building over 1.7 billion people of many faiths, races, languages, and traditions, The Commonwealth represents almost one-third of the world's population. Commonwealth countries are able to work together in an atmosphere of greater trust and understand than generally prevails among nations. Commonwealth Day is holiday in most of the country under the day and it held (second Monday of March). Her Majesty The Queen is the Head of the Commonwealth. What is History of Commonwealth? The origins of the commonwealth lie in the British Empire. Starting in the 16th century, Britain invaded other lands. This was very violent most of the times. Some colonies such as India, invaded other land, had large local populations ruled by British overloads. The Commonwealth association became known in 1949. And it is one of the world’s oldest political associations of states. Its roots go back to the British Empire when some countries were ruled directly or indirectly by Britain. That year India became a republic but still wished to remain a member of the association. In response, leaders agreed that membership did not have to be based on allegiance to the British...

Words: 1340 - Pages: 6

Premium Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

...to support Bruce and Cassar were BBDO senior executives Jeff Mordos (Chief Operating Officer), Cathy Israelevitz (Senior Account Director), and Ted Sann (Chief Creative Officer). Each of the three executives had over a decade of experience working on Mountain Dew. Representing PepsiCo were Scott Moffitt (Marketing Director, Mountain Dew), Dawn Hudson (Chief Marketing Officer, and a former senior ad agency executive), and Gary Rodkin (Chief Executive Officer, Pepsi Cola North America). Scott Moffitt scribbled notes as he listened to Bruce speak. Moffitt and the brand managers under him were charged with day-to-day oversight of Mountain Dew marketing. These responsibilities included brand strategy, consumer and sales promotions, packaging, line extensions, product changes, and sponsorships. But for Moffitt and the senior managers above him, the most important decisions of the year were made in conference rooms with BBDO creatives. Each of the ads would cost over a million dollars to produce. But the production costs were minor compared to the $55 million media budget that would be committed to air these spots. Historically, PepsiCo management had learned that selecting the right...

Words: 8280 - Pages: 34

Premium Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

...1. Q. What are some of the social, political, and economic forces that are influencing SIA’s decision to become a learning organization? * The situation in this case study demonstrates the need to consolidate employee knowledge into one system in an effort to improve overall company performance. SIA had acquired 30 separate businesses but they were still functioning like 30 separate companies. They each still had their own set of management and well-defined procedures and policies. As a result, most of the employees had developed their own areas of expertise. In the highly competitive insurance market, SIA needed to change this business philosophy if they were going to succeed. * In the early years of the new century, many companies use behavioral approach that means they use information and techniques from the social sciences to improve organizations health and improving internal relationships, and increasing problem for solving capabilities. In that time, social and political environment is changing. If SIA Corporation keep their own political policy, and keep its own hierarchy, characterized by strong top-down administration, SIA could not able to see or compete to other organizations as competition for achieving its goal. 2. Q. If you were a specialist from SIA, how and why would you respond to the proposed changes? What steps would you suggest Jerry take to increase employee utilization of the knowledge- sharing system In particular? How can he encourage...

Words: 816 - Pages: 4

Premium Essay

Empress Luxury Lines

...are to his subordinate, Kevin Pfeiffer, what decision would Antonio Melendez most likely reach if he applied the utilitarian approach to decision making? What conclusions would probably result if he employed the individualism approach? In my opinion, if he uses utilitarian approach he would do something rather than keeping his coworker in trouble. He would have thought of the co-employers and growth of the company and consequences to face & go ahead. In other hand, if he uses individualism he would have asked Kevin to do what he likes. If he employed the individualism approach and fraud thing have blown out in the market and the company have drowned. It would result in consequences like: • Closing of company • UnemploymentEmpress Luxury Lines • Facing social media • Cost for legal activities • Its problems to all the parties of the company except insurance. However it would be good if this happens because it would be example for others and would not go for fraud and keep others in trouble. If he employed the individual approach and fraud thing is blown and did not have any effect, this would directly result in personal problems like • Job insecurity or lay off. • Screwing of his career • Personal risk • Illegal activities However, if this happens in long term the company has to face bad consequences. And would result in high penalty than they benefited or shutting down of company which would result in job loss, terminating of retirement plans loss of shares...

Words: 511 - Pages: 3

Free Essay

Paper

...Jasmine Troyer Principles of Management Professor Eskew 4 October 2012 Empress Luxury Lines This case study discusses the moral and ethical decision of a computer technician and his supervisor. Kevin, the computer technician, was instructed to clear some electrical wire from underground before the insurance company arrived to assess the damage. He made the decision to refuse the order and took the problem Antonio Melendez. After the story was told Antonio had to make a decision to either sweep the problem under the rug, let Kevin be the one to tell the insurance company or tell the insurance company himself. The decision that he was faced with had huge consequences and small consequences. Part of the decision he had to make even boiled down to what his moral and ethical standings were. 1. In this situation if Antonio were to apply the utilitarian approach he would be focusing solely on the consequences that would arise from the situation. He would have to know that taking this approach he would be putting his own job in jeopardy if he were to take matters completely into his own hands. Not only would it jeopardize his job but whoever was the person to “blow the whistle”. Using this approach he will also need to put into account that the top of the management may simply look over the problem and that there is an extremely low probability that the issue will actually be addressed. If Antonio decides to go with the individualism approach then he will be focusing more...

Words: 755 - Pages: 4

Premium Essay

House of Tata Acquiring Global Footprint

...hydroelectric power and creating an institution that would tutor Indians in the sciences. He conceived of policies and institutions far more advance than that of his times. He was born into a Parsi family of priests. He followed his father’s footsteps into business as his father was the first one in his family to start a business. He graduated with the green scholar from Elphiston College in Bombay and worked for 9 years with his father. There he learned about commodities, markets, trading and banking before starting his own company Tata & Sons, which is now Tata Sons. He made a detailed study of Lancashire cotton mills and replicated the idea into his own cottons mills. He set up a mill in Nagpur called empress mills which was based on the name of Empress Queen Victoria. Empress Mills started many innovative process and products. Also he pioneered several welfare...

Words: 1225 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Title

...Valentino  – всемирно известный итальянский Модный дом, специализирующийся на производстве мужской и женской одежды, нижнего белья, аксессуаров и парфюмерии. Valentino выпускает коллекции Ready-to-Wear и Haute Couture. Относится к люксовому сегменту рынка. В 1959 году Валентино Гаравани открыл ателье в Рим,а в 1960 году зарегистрировал бренд Valentino.  В 1962 году во Флоренции состоялся показ Valentino под названием Gotha. В коллекции присутствовали наряды красного цвета, ставшие впоследствии визитной карточкой бренда. Работа Валентино Гаравани получила восторженные отзывы. Его клиентами стали Одри Хепберн, Жаклин Кеннеди,Фара Диба (иранская императрица), принцесса Маргарет Роуз и др. В 1968 году была создана знаменитая коллекция Valentino под названием Collezione Bianca. В ней присутствовали наряды белого, кремового, мелового, песочного и бежевого оттенков. В этот период популярными были психоделические цвета, в мире моды коллекцию Валентино Гаравани назвали «бесцветной». Модельер украсил изделия вышивкой в виде буквы «V» – логотипа Модного дома. В этом же году Жаклин Кеннеди заказала платье цвета топленое молоко из коллекции Collezione Bianca. Свадебные фотографии Жаклин украсили обложки многочисленных журналов, имя Валентино Гаравани стало известно всему миру. В 1969 году была запущена мужская линия бренда. В 1970 году Valentino запустили линию аксессуаров. В 1989 году Valentino представил первую коллекцию Haute Сouture на Неделе Высокой моды в Париже. В сентябре 2007...

Words: 796 - Pages: 4

Free Essay

Best Cruise Ship

...CRUISE SHIPS Allure of the seas The biggest cruise ship ever constructed can carry 6,360 passengers and beats Oasis of the Seas by a mere 5 centimeters in length! Oasis of the seas Another water-wonder from Royal Caribbean, Oasis of the seas is the sister ship of Allure of the seas and debuted in December 2009. Norwegian Epic Norwegian Cruise Line’s (NCL) Epic debuted in June 2010 and has been a favorite with passengers ever since. Innovation has been a catalyst in making Epic’s journey a hit with people. Solo studio cabins, ice-bar, performances by Blue-man group, new wave cabins and translucent bathrooms; the innovative changes are a pleasant change. Queen Mary 2 The first ever cruise line to be built for transatlantic voyage, QM2 was always regarded as the biggest cruise line in the world till Allure of the seas comfortably took its place on the number one spot. Since QM2 is used to cross the Atlantic Ocean, it’s designing and construction is a bit different from the other cruise liners. Freedom of the Seas Ruler of the cruising world, Royal Caribbean has another winner in its kitty, Freedom of the seas. The first ship to feature a surf-simulator onboard, Freedom of the seas is considered one the best cruise liners in the world. Liberty of the seas Sister vessel of the Freedom ship, Liberty is the second largest ship on the seas, coming after the Oasis sisters. Cruising between the Mediterranean and the Caribbean, Liberty is actually not very different from its sister...

Words: 2368 - Pages: 10

Premium Essay

Marketing Analysis of Lv

...Zhengyi Fang Marketing 350 Prof. Eguchi Aug 8th 2013 Marketing Analysis of Louis Vuitton Classic Handbags Louis Vuitton handbags and luggages are known and recognized throughout the world as the symbol of extreme quality, prestige and luxury. It is one of the biggest and most profitable luxury brands in the world right now. Mr. Vuitton established the company in 1854, and he designed and introduced flat-bottom luggage trunks made with trianon canvas. The flat-bottom luggage became the favorite of Empress Eugenie, and it has become the luggage choice for the wealthy. In 1867, the company won an award at the World Exposition in Paris and its influence spread out in France. In the following year, Louis Vuitton opened its first overseas store in London. In 1892, Louis Vuitton passed away, and his son George Vuitton took over the company and build the company into a worldwide corporation. In 1893, it entered the U.S market. In 1896, it launched its signature Monogram Canvas print, and secured worldwide patents for it. In this essay, I shall analyze the micro and macro environment of the Louis Vuitton classic handbags, and discuss the its marketing mix. Microenvironment It consists six actors, which are the company, suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customer markets, competitor, and public, these factors are close to the company and can affect the company’s ability to serve its customers. * The company The company itself is the first force in the company’s microenvironment...

Words: 2313 - Pages: 10

Premium Essay

Bsuiness Strategy for Lv

...glittering French multinational in Japan took place in Aoyama, one of Tokyo’s fashionable districts. A unique vision of luxury took shape when Louis Vuitton opened yet another new store inside Comme des Garçons on September 4, 2008, in the heart of Japan’s capital. The pop-up store situated on the prestigious Omotesando Street was an illustration of Louis Vuitton’s attachment to the Japanese luxury market. Yves Carcelle, chairman and CEO of Louis Vuitton, said, “This project not only brings a new meaning to luxury, but also speaks volumes about how the know-how and heritage of Louis Vuitton have always been perceived in Japan, including by its foremost designers. We are very proud to have been able to help Rei Kawakubo2 relive her memories in such an original and creative way.”3The Omotesando guerrilla marketing event reflected Louis Vuitton’s success in Japan. Louis Vuitton had been following an aggressive marketing strategy in the country, opening extravagant stores such as those in Ginza or Roppongi.Take a walk on Ginza’s main street, Chuo Dori, the centre of a paradise for shoppers, with longestablished department stores, such as Mitsukoshi, Takashimaya and Matsuzakaya. Continue through the high-end fashion street Namiki-dori. Stop. There it is. You have reached the massive flagship Louis Vuitton store. When Louis Vuitton, the world’s biggest luxury-goods firm, inaugurated its huge shop in 2002 in the district of Omotesando, Tokyo, hundreds of people were queued outside...

Words: 7967 - Pages: 32

Premium Essay

Luxury Brand Strategy of Louis Vuitton

...WASEDA BUSINESS & ECONOMIC STUDIES 2009 NO.45 Luxury Brand Strategy of Louis Vuitton - Details of Marketing Principles by Shin'ya Nagasawa* Abstract: By systematicallybreaking down the strategy of the single Louis Vuitton luxury brand into the four Ps (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion), our aim in this paper is to extract the rules or principles of its brand marketing that differ from that of general consumer goods. In other words, the object is to distill the rules and principles of success strategies for luxury brands as well as to derive a business model for success. Showing that the current rise of Louis Vuitton is not a coincidence but rather something achieved through strategy will surely be of interest to firms struggling with lack of brand power or those looking to boost brand power. 1. Introduction Consumers like brand items, while researchers like brand theory. Although scholars also use the word "brand" to refer to the likes of Coca-Cola and McDonald's, there is a vast gulf between these brands and the luxury brands we explored in the previous book. In researchers' brand management theories, one rarely finds mention of representative luxury brands like Louis Vuitton or Dior, or of LVMH. Based on this awareness, we carefully scrutinized the ecology of the unique LVMH firm, considering the nature of the brand as distinct from commodity markets, although * Shin'ya Nagasawa is a professor of MOT (Management of Technology) at...

Words: 7622 - Pages: 31

Premium Essay

Read

...communication. Course Objectives: This course surveys various perspectives of how a manager can better plan, organize, lead, evaluate and coordinate his/her organization. You should begin to develop your approach or style for the successful management of human, financial, and societal resources in business organizations. Development of critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, communication skills, and the ability to adapt to change are emphasized. Course Prerequisites: Junior standing. Required Text: Understanding Management, sixth ed. By Daft & Marcic. South-Western, 2009. Please bring your textbook to class every day as we will be completing exercises from the text during class time. Students have access to an on-line library through CengageNow. Course policies: 1. Class attendance and participation in discussion of exercises, current events and chapter topics is expected and taken into account when grades are calculated. NOTE: Physical attendance does not constitute participation! Only discussion counts! Chapters, cases and exercises should be read prior to class. Be prepared to participate or be called upon. 2. Absences are frowned upon. Since we only have 16 class periods, missing more than ONE class, may affect your final...

Words: 1966 - Pages: 8

Premium Essay

Lvmh

...Luxury Brand Strategy of Louis Vuitton Shin'ya NAGASAWA* * Graduate School of Commerce, Waseda University Tokyo, Japan, nagasawa@waseda.jp Abstract: By systematically breaking down the strategy of the single Louis Vuitton luxury brand into the four Ps (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion), our aim in this paper is to extract the rules or principles of its brand marketing that differ from that of general consumer goods. In other words, the object is to distill the rules and principles of success strategies for luxury brands as well as to derive a busi ness m odel for success. Showing that the current rise of Louis V uitton is not a coincidence but rath er so mething ach ieved th rough strat egy will su rely b e of in terest to firm s struggling with lack of brand power or those looking to boost brand power. Key words: luxury brand, brand management, Louis Vuitton. 1. Introduction Consumers like brand items, while researchers like brand theory. Although scholars also use the word “brand” to refer to the likes of Coca-Cola and McDonald’s, there is a vast gulf between these brands and the luxury brands we e xplored i n t he p revious b ook. I n researchers’ brand m anagement theories, one r arely fi nds m ention o f representative luxury brands like Louis Vuitton or Dior, or of LVMH. Based on this awareness, we carefully scrutinized the ecology of the unique LVMH firm, considering the nature of the brand as distinct from commodity markets, although small in scale [1]. This...

Words: 6576 - Pages: 27

Premium Essay

Lllll

...Luxury Brand Strategy of Louis Vuitton Shin'ya NAGASAWA* * Graduate School of Commerce, Waseda University Tokyo, Japan, nagasawa@waseda.jp Abstract: By systematically breaking down th e strategy of the single Louis Vuitton luxury brand into the four Ps (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion), our aim in this paper is to extract the rules or principles of its brand marketing that differ from that of general consumer goods. In other words, the object is to distill the rules and principles of success strategies for l uxury brands as well as to derive a busi ness m odel for success. Showing that the current rise of Louis V uitton is not a coincidence but rath er so mething ach ieved th rough strat egy will su rely b e of in terest to firm s struggling with lack of brand power or those looking to boost brand power. Key words: luxury brand, brand management, Louis Vuitton. 1. Introduction Consumers like brand items, while researchers like brand theory. Although scholars also use the word “brand” to refer to the likes of Coca-Cola and McDonald’s, there is a vast gulf between these brands and the luxury brands we e xplored i n t he p revious b ook. I n researchers’ brand m anagement theories, one r arely fi nds m ention o f representative luxury brands like Louis Vuitton or Dior, or of LVMH. Based on this awareness, we carefully scrutinized the ecology of the unique LVMH firm, considering the nature of the brand as distinct from commodity markets, although...

Words: 6787 - Pages: 28