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Engineering

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Turbochargers

Introduction

The internal combustion engine is an air consuming machine. This is because the fuel that is burned requires air with which it can mix to complete the combustion cycle. Once the air/fuel ratio reaches a certain point, the addition of more fuel will not produce more power, but only black smoke or unburned fuel into the atmosphere. The denser the smoke, the more the engine is being over fueled. Therefore, increasing the fuel delivery beyond the air/fuel ratio limit, results in excessive fuel consumption, pollution, high exhaust temperature (diesel) or low exhaust temperature (gasoline), and shortened engine life.

If however, the engine is supercharged, then a greater supply of air will be available, enabling more fuel to be burnt; this will result in the engine producing more power. (Supercharging is the introduction of air to an engine at higher than atmospheric pressure).

Mechanical Supercharging

With mechanical supercharging, the combustion air is compressed by a compressor driven directly by the engine. However, the power output increase is partly lost due to the parasitic losses from driving the compressor. The power to drive a mechanical turbocharger is up to 15 % of the engine output. Therefore, fuel consumption is higher when compared with a naturally aspirated engine with the same power output.

[pic]

Fig. 1 Schematic of a mechanically supercharged four-cylinder engine

Exhaust Gas Supercharging (Turbocharging)

In exhaust gas turbocharging, some of the exhaust gas energy, which would normally be wasted, is used to drive a turbine. Mounted on the same shaft as the turbine is a compressor which draws in the combustion air, compresses it, and then supplies it to the engine. There is no mechanical coupling to the engine.
[pic]

Fig. 2 Schematic of an exhaust gas turbocharged four-cylinder engine

Turbocharger Theory

A turbocharger is basically an exhaust gas driven air compressor and can be best understood if it is divided into its two basic parts, the exhaust gas driven turbine and its housing, and the air compressor and its housing. Both are connected together like a set of Siamese twins where each of them perform different functions but, because they are joined together at the hip via a common shaft, the function of one impacts the function of the other. How? Take a perfectly set up compressor section and mate it with an incorrect turbine section, or visa versa, and you end up with our Siamese twins trying to go in different directions. The result is that our Siamese twins end up wasting all of their energy fighting each other and go nowhere.

The development of turbocharged marine diesel engines has always aimed at higher power and efficiency. About 75% of engine power relies on the turbocharger. The exhaust gases from the diesel engine flow through the gas inlet casing and nozzle ring to the turbine wheel. The turbine uses the energy contained in the exhaust gas to drive the compressor. The compressor draws in fresh air and compresses it before being forced into the cylinders. The exhaust gases exit the turbocharger via the gas outlet casing.

[pic]

Fig. 3 Turbocharger Principle
.
The rotating compressor wheel is driven at high speed by the turbine. The air which is necessary for the operation of the diesel engine and which is compressed in the turbocharger is drawn through the suction branch or the silencer into the compressor wheel. Impeller blades accelerate and throw out the air into the diffuser casing at high velocity. It then leaves the turbocharger through the volute of the air outlet housing. The diffuser transforms the high velocity air into high-pressure air for combustion in the diesel engine.
The rotor runs in two radial plain bearings which are located in the bearing bush between the compressor casing and turbine casing. The axial thrust bearing is on the compressor side.

The power necessary to drive a compressor in the turbocharger must be equal to the power delivered by the turbine. The power of a rotating machine, such as a compressor or a turbine, is:

P = mc Δ T

This relationship shows the direct influence of mass flow on the output of the turbocharger. The temperature drop over the turbine is directly related to the pressure drop. The pressure drop over the turbine depends on the flow area of the turbine and on the exhaust flow forced by the engine on the turbine. So, the output of the turbocharger mainly depends on the mass flow.

[pic]
Fig 4 Modern exhaust gas turbocharger

When the same equation is applied to the compressor, it shows that the power input will result not only in a pressure rise, but also in a temperature rise of the charge air. To lower the temperature and to increase the density, a charge air cooler is required between the compressor and the inlet air receiver. This helps to increase the engine output at more moderate charging pressure

When considering a turbocharger most folks tend to look at the maximum flow rating of the compressor and ignore everything else under the assumption that the compressor and the exhaust turbine are perfectly matched. The goal in a performance application is to get the exhaust turbine up to speed as quickly as possible. However; it must be mated to a compressor wheel that will generate as much pressure as it can as soon as possible. This is a contradiction because the exhaust turbine generates the drive power and the compressor consumes that power.

The larger the compressor and the higher the pressure (boost) we want, the quicker the power from the exhaust turbine can be used up. Put in a larger exhaust turbine and it will take the engine longer to develop enough hot expanding exhaust gas to spin it, slowing down the compressor and causing turbo lag.

The turbine is powered by hot expanding exhaust gas, a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, the more and the hotter the expanding exhaust gas the better. The exhaust turbine will not generate enough power to turn the air compressor fast enough for it to work properly unless the engine is feeding the exhaust turbine a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, a condition that can only be created when the engine is under a load.

Advantages of Exhaust Gas Turbo-charging

• Compared with a naturally aspirated engine of identical power output, the fuel consumption of a turbo engine is lower, as some of the normally wasted exhaust energy contributes to the engine's efficiency. Due to the lower volumetric displacement of the turbo engine, frictional and thermal losses are less. • The power-to-weight ratio, i.e. kilowatt (power output)/kilograms (engine weight), of the exhaust gas turbocharged engine is much better than that of the naturally aspirated engine. • The turbo engine's installation space requirement is smaller than that of a naturally aspirated engine with the same power output. • A turbocharged engine's torque characteristic can be improved. Due to the so-called "maxi dyne characteristic" (a very high torque increase at low engine speeds), close to full power output is maintained well below rated engine speed. • Because of reduced overall size, the sound-radiating outer surface of a turbo engine is smaller; it is therefore less noisy than a naturally aspirated engine with identical output. The turbocharger itself acts as an additional silencer.

Turbochargers on Large-Bore Engines

Operating modes

A turbocharger may be operated on the constant-pressure principle or on the pulse principle. The differences between these principles lie in the design of the exhaust system of the diesel engine. Just before the exhaust valve opens, the cylinder process ends with a relatively high pressure and temperature.

Constant Pressure System

In the constant pressure system, during blow down, the cylinder pressure drops quickly to the exhaust receiver pressure and the pressure in a large receiver remains almost constant. A constant pressure system features one big exhaust manifold, which collects the exhaust gases of all cylinders. The mass flow fluctuations, caused by the cylinders that intermittently exhaust into the receiver, are dampened out by the sheer size of the manifold; thus the pressure in the manifold is relatively low and constant over the cycle.

Advantages of Constant Pressure System

• Due to the stability of the conditions of the gas entering the turbine, the blades and blade angles can be optimized for maximum efficiency. Due to this, a constant pressure system can offer about a 5% increase in efficiency over a pulse system fitted engine • Due to the increased efficiency of the blower more energy is available at outlet from the blower for utilization in the waste heat recovery or power turbine. • The stability in the gas flow has an added advantage in that the loading on the rotating parts and the bearings is reduced. • Exhaust valve opening can be made later in the stroke as the high pressure blow-down of the exhaust gas is not required and also there is less resistance to the outflow of the exhaust gas.
Disadvantages
• The main disadvantage of this system is that some means of assisting the scavenging is required at part load. This normally takes the form of an electrically driven blower which is sighted in the scavenge manifold. This blower draws air in over the turbo-blower compressor and compresses it, discharging directly in the scavenge manifold. Drawing air in over the turbo-blower assists with inertia. • The possibility of back leakage into the cylinder under low load conditions.

Fig 5 Constant Pressure Turbocharger System
Pulse System

This system feeds the exhaust gases of the engine through narrow pipes to the turbocharger turbine, thus driving the compressor. The pressure variation in the small-volume pipes allows overlapping of the inlet and exhaust, permitting scavenging of the compression space of the engine cylinder with clean air. Cylinders that do not disturb each other’s scavenging process can be connected to one pipe (turbine gas inlet) in accordance with the firing order of the diesel engine. This pulse system was the foundation for further success of turbocharging. In December 1928, following a lecture given by Dr. A. Buchi at the Royal Institute of Engineers at Hague in the Netherlands, it was learnt that the thermal load of a diesel engine does not essentially increase when turbocharged. Thus began a phase of extensive research and development.

In the pulse system the pressure in a relatively small receiver has a pulsating character. In the pulse system, up to three cylinders are connected to one turbine by a small exhaust pipe. The pressure in the manifold is low, which is advantageous for the scavenging process. Until one of the cylinders opens its exhaust, the pressure rises quickly, even higher than the charge pressure before the engine, giving the turbine a boost. The energy present in the exhaust gases is more effectively transported to the turbine. The pressure before the turbine is high and the blow down losses are much smaller than for the constant pressure system. The greater pressure ratio over the turbine however, is counteracted by a lower efficiency of the turbine due to the increased flow losses as a result of the pulsating flow.

[pic]
Fig 6 Pulse Turbocharger System

Advantages • The main advantage of this system is that best use is made of the available energy from the exhaust gas at part load to a point that auxiliary blowers of any sort are usually omitted except where fitted for emergency use. • The system responds rapidly to load changes
Disadvantages
• The disadvantage is reduced turbocharger efficiency as the blade and nozzle angles have to be a compromise because of the varying gas velocity and pressure at inlet.

Compressor Technology
Turbocharger compressors are generally centrifugal compressors consisting of three essential components: compressor wheel, diffuser, and housing. With the rotational speed of the wheel, air is drawn in axially, accelerated to high velocity and then expelled in a radial direction.
The diffuser slows down the high-velocity air, largely without losses, so that both pressure and temperature rise. The diffuser is formed by the compressor back plate and a part of the volute housing, which in its turn collects the air and slows it down further before it reaches the compressor exit.
The main parts of the turbocharger compressor are the compressor wheel (inducer and impeller), common rotor and compressor shaft, diffuser, silencer-filter, air intake casing and compressor casing.

Theory of Operation

[pic]

Fig 7 Diagram of a ssimplified Centrifugal Compressor (Pump)
The centrifugal force utilized by the centrifugal compressor is the same force utilized by the centrifugal pump. The air particles enter the eye D of the impeller and as the impeller rotates, air is thrown against the casing of the compressor. The air becomes compressed as more and more air is thrown out to the casing by the impeller blades. The air is pushed along the path designated A, B, and C in Figure. The pressure of the air is increased as it is pushed along this path. Note in Figure that the impeller blades curve forward, which is opposite to the backward curve used in typical centrifugal liquid pumps. Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade orientation including both forward and backward curves as well as other designs. There may be several stages to a centrifugal air compressor, as in the centrifugal pump, and the result would be the same; a higher pressure would be produced.

Compressor wheel and the diffuser

The compressor wheel, which is one of the most important parts of the turbocharger, is normally made of a single piece high-strength aluminum alloy for compression ratios up to 4.5 and single piece titanium for compression ratios over 4.5.

[pic]

Fig 8 Compressor Wheel

The compressor wheel which may feature a corrosion resistance coating to protect the impeller against acidic corrosion must fulfill the following requirements: • To provide the engine with a sufficient amount of air at the desired pressure. • High compressor efficiency. • Wide compressor map to ensure a safe surge margin, not only at full load, but also at part load. • To take high loads due to blades loads as well as centrifugal and vibration stresses.
Compressor silencer air filter

The turbocharger for marine propulsion diesel engine have plate-type silencer as a standard; they are surrounded by an effective air filter. A special guide cone inside the silencer ensures equalization on the air flow and uniform air admission to the compressor.
Silencer features following characteristics: • Contributes to high turbocharger efficiencies due to their low pressure losses, especially at higher mass flows • Effective noise level reduction to the required standard level • Maximum velocities of the air at silencer inlet of 6 m/s.
The soft air filter helps to keep compressor, diffuser and intercooler free from deposits by an effective filtering process.

Air intake casing

The air inlet casing is either constructed with 90 degree bent or as an axial air inlet duct. The large flow paths and wide-curved deflection regions exhibit constant pressure and velocity distribution at compressor inlet.

Compressor outlet casing

The compressor casing which is normally made of grey cast iron, with its wide flow sections and large outlet areas, ensures efficient conversion of kinetic energy into pressure. In the large propulsion engine where high charge air pressures (continuously above 4.0 bars) are required, the compressor casing can be heat insulated.

Turbines design

There are two completely different designs; radial flow and axial flow exhaust gas turbines which are used to drive turbocharger compressors. Radial turbine is normally used in small turbocharger fitted on engine with supercharged engine output from 500kW to about 4500kW per turbocharger, while axial turbine is used on higher power propulsion engines (medium-speed and slow-speed engines). The radial turbine is perfectly capable of accepting the exhaust gas from engine running on heavy fuel oil with ability to retain its high efficiency over a very long period of time, especially when reasonable maintenance is provided.

The axial turbine is able to supply an adequate output with good efficiency to drive the compressor from low pressure ratios upwards, thus assuring good part-load performance of the engine. Variable turbine geometry with higher part-load boost pressure and improved dynamic response ensures best transient performance and reduces fuel consumption and emissions in engine’s part load operation.
The main parts of a modern turbocharger turbine are the turbine rotor (disk and rotor blades), common compressor and rotor shaft, nozzle ring, gas admission and gas outlet casings and integrated turbine cleaning device.

The forged turbine disk consists of a high-tensile, heat resistance alloy and is connected to the rotor shaft by means of friction welding.

[pic]

Fig 9 Turbine Disc

The blades are precisely forged of a Nimonic alloy. The blades are fastened to the turbine disk by means of a fir-tree foot connection. Improved construction design of the modern turbocharger has made the turbine blades very well accessible for inspection and cleaning with the usual damping wire in the turbine blade ring omitted.

Turbine nozzle ring

The cast nozzle ring with profiled blades largely contributes to the excellent efficiency of the turbine. With improved flow in the nozzle ring, the vibration acceleration of the rotor blades is reduced and at the same time the stability of the nozzle ring is remarkably improved, especially when it is subjected to heavy stress from cleaning granulates. The casings if insulated with simple and highly efficient insulation material, will guarantee a lower noise level as well as low surface temperature in the engine room.

Turbine casing

The gas admission and gas outlet casings having wide flow areas are made of nodular iron and with improved construction design are un-cooled and are effectively insulated with the flow losses minimized. Turbine outlet casing flange may be subject to loads by the effected gas forces and additional exterior forces while the gas admission casing flange may be subject only to loads by the effected gas forces; this necessitates the use of compensators directly at the turbine inlet and at the turbine outlet. The compensators are to be pre-loaded in such a manner that thermal expansion of the pipes and the casing do not affect force or torque in addition to the gas forces.
Cleaning device

In modern turbocharger where efficient and standard synthetic air filter is normally used the washing of compressor can be dispensed, provided the air filter is properly treated. However, the turbocharger turbine must be cleaned at regular intervals beginning from the very first operation to remove combustion residues from the blades of rotor and nozzle ring; failure to do so might cause a deterioration of the operating data or severe excitations of the rotor blades. Two principal cleaning procedures for turbine are: Turbine wet cleaning and turbine dry cleaning. Both cleaning methods can be used with the same turbocharger to complement the advantages of each single device.

In wet cleaning fresh water free from any chemical additives with approximate pressure of 3 bars has to be used and in order to avoid overload on turbine blades by thermo-shock and centrifugal stresses, the propulsion engine load has to be reduced to 10% of normal load. In dry cleaning, with advantage of carrying it out during normal operation of the engine, a container is filled with a specified quantity of granules and blown into the turbo during an injection period of approximately 30 seconds.

Other issues

Vibration

Natural frequencies of rotating components are always analyzed in the design phase to determine the vibration levels. It is also important that the natural frequency of the turbocharger assembly be thoroughly evaluated and the overall system response of the turbocharger on its bracket understood. In addition to theoretical analyses, the vibration characteristics of turbochargers and their air filter silencers have been practically evaluated on a shaker table. This has resulted in a more reliable modeling of the turbocharger and air filter silencers preventing vibration problems normally encountered in service.

Noise emissions and control

Due to the new thrust in environmental awareness manufacturers of large two stroke diesel engines have embarked on a program to reduce engine emitted-noise. Greater demands are accordingly being placed on engine designers to provide more detailed and precise information regarding noise emissions and its various forms.

One of the main origins of noise emissions from two-stroke machinery is the turbocharger. The charging systems of large marine diesel engines comprise up to four turbochargers. The components connected to the turbocharger can contribute considerably to the total noise level of the engine. In particular, these components are mainly responsible for pure tone noise transmitted from the compressor outlet. The result of development work for reducing noise at the compressor outlet revealed that an acoustically optimized diffuser is highly effective in reducing the noise level at the compressor outlet.

Containment

To protect personnel and to avoid any risk of injury in the case of turbocharger over speed with sudden break of the connection between the compressor and the shaft, all housings are designed to be capable of containing any bursting parts.

Surging

Surging takes place if the air mass delivered by the blower falls at a faster rate than the air pressure of delivery. With all blowers it is possible to produce a graph showing the effect. The map width is limited on the left by the surge line. This is basically "stalling" of the air flow at the compressor inlet. With too small a volume flow and too high a pressure ratio, the flow can no longer adhere to the suction side of the blades, with the result that the discharge process is interrupted. The air flow through the compressor is reversed until a stable pressure ratio with positive volume flow rate is reached, the pressure builds up again and the cycle repeats. This flow instability continues at a fixed frequency and the resultant noise is known as "surging".

[pic]

Fig 10 Turbocharger Surge Line

Surging gives an unpleasant noise. The initial action in order to prevent a blower surging is to reduce engine load. Blower efficiency is highest closer to the surge line and so if a high efficiency is demanded there is little leeway against surging. In practice the fitting of blowers is a compromise between reasonable blower efficiency and an acceptable degree of safeguard against surging.

Some causes of turbocharger surge are: • Excessive exhaust backpressure • Excessive turbo inlet restriction • Excessive turbo outlet restriction • Turbo outlet pressure leak • Erratic engine or engine control operation

Turbo Lag

A turbocharger uses a centrifugal compressor, which needs rpm to make boost, and it is driven off the exhaust pressure, so it cannot make instant boost. It is especially hard to make boost at low rpm. The turbo takes time to accelerate before full boost comes in; it is this delay that is known as turbo lag. To limit lag, it is important to make the rotating parts of the turbocharger as light as possible. Larger turbo's for high boost applications will also have more lag than smaller turbo's, due to the increase in centrifugal mass. Impeller design and the whole engine combo also have a large effect on the amount of lag. Turbo lag is often confused with the term boost threshold, but they are not the same thing, lag is nothing more the delay from when the throttle is opened to the time noticeable boost is achieved.

Smaller turbocharger systems for motor vehicles will sometimes have a wastegate, a valve which allows some of the exhaust gas to be directed around the turbine. This allows the shaft of the turbocharger to spin at a reduced speed (standby mode) when the power is not needed, thus producing increased turbo life

Boost Threshold

Unlike turbo lag, which is the delay of boost, boost threshold is the lowest possible rpm at which there can be noticeable boost. A low boost threshold is important when accelerating from very low rpm, but at higher rpm, lag is the delay that you feel when you go from light to hard throttle settings.

Recommendations for Servicing and Care

What is good for a turbocharger?

The turbocharger is designed such that it will usually last as long as the engine. It does not require any special maintenance; and inspection is limited to a few periodic checks.
To ensure that the turbocharger's lifetime corresponds to that of the engine, the following engine manufacturer's service instructions must be strictly observed:

• Oil change intervals • Oil filter system maintenance • Oil pressure control • Air filter system maintenance

What is bad for a turbocharger?

90 % of all turbocharger failures are due to the following causes: • Penetration of foreign bodies into the turbine or the compressor • Dirt in the oil • Inadequate oil supply (oil pressure/filter system) • High exhaust gas temperatures (ignition system/injection system)

These failures can be avoided by regular maintenance. When maintaining the air filter system, for example, care should be taken that no tramp material gets into the turbocharger.

Intercooler Theory

An intercooler, or charge air cooler, is a air-to-air or air-to-liquid heat exchange device used on turbocharged and supercharged internal combustion engines to improve their volumetric efficiency by increasing intake air charge density through isometric (constant volume) cooling. A decrease in air intake temperature provides a denser intake charge to the engine and allows more air and fuel to be combusted per engine cycle, increasing the output of the engine.

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Engineering

...University of San Carlos Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City, Philippines CERAMIC INSULATORS: AN IDEAL FOR ELECTRICAL SAFETY By: Kirby Emmanuel C. Oraiz Frank Joseph P. Ruiz Ramel Joseph A. Derecho University of San Carlos Talamban Campus Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City, Cebu INTRODUCTION: Science and technology are in continuous development. This leads to ever more demanding and intelligent technology. The demands made on modern materials are increasing with the same dynamism. The features that are demanded include greater strengths for material-saving constructions, lighter components for energy saving, higher quality for more security and longer service life. After all, cost-effectiveness plays a crucial role. Ceramic materials have in the past made an important contribution to this process of innovation. Requirements for the successful application of ceramics include constructions that are appropriate to the materials and the manufacturing processes, as well as appropriate applications. The point is not that common materials can be displaced, but rather that customised products allow completely new solutions. In order to make intelligent and effective use of the properties of ceramics, it is not sufficient simply to take an existing structural component and to replace it in every detail with a ceramic part. A drawing of the component used so far, however, together with a great deal of supplementary information, can show the way to the mass-produced ceramic component...

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Quality Engineering

...QUALITY ENGINEERING DESIGN FOR WEB-BASED CATAPULT BY Mohammed Mujeeb Ahmed khan SUBMITTED TO PROFESSOR K. M. RAGSDELL FOR CREDIT IN EMGT-475: QUALITY ENGINEERING Contents 1. Introduction 1.1. An overview of Quality Engineering 1.2. Problem description  P diagram  Quality characteristics  Control factors  Noise factors  Mathematical Model of Crystal Ball 2. Method and Experimental plan  The static experiment  The dynamic experiment  Fast Diagram  Fault tree Diagram 3. Conclusions 4. References 5. Annexure  Static Experiment  Analysis of means  Analysis of Variance  Dynamic experiment  Confirmation Experiment 2 1. Introduction The Taguchi system of Quality Engineering is a philosophy and a set of tools and techniques to design and deliver high quality, low cost products in a short time. The foundation of this system was laid by Dr. Genichi Taguchi in Japan. In the decades that followed, Dr. Taguchi’s techniques were applied to an increasing number of applications to solve real world problems. The technique was introduced to the western world in the 1980s, and it quickly created a paradigm shift in the perception of quality. 1.1. An overview of Quality Engineering System: Product Parameter Design: Product parameter design is optimizing the product parameters to give the desired performance. A quality characteristic is chosen whose...

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Redefining Engineering

...Gregory Alan Francisco, II Energy Science Laboratory Current Event 1 Professor Calamas September 11, 2014 Gregory Alan Francisco, II Energy Science Laboratory September 11, 2014 Groups of people composed of all types of majors are being implemented into groups to practice and develop their skills to help people in developing countries with accommodations they might not have the means to produce themselves. Engineers Without Boarders is one of the big organizations that is participating in the global impact form of engineering teams. The teams that they produce are very diverse; including business, biology, engineers and political science majors alike to accomplish the tasks they have been presented. These groups are given multiple tests to determine what their strengths are and weaknesses to more properly form them into the individual’s teams they will cooperate with. The teams are then on a 5 month voyage in which they are responsible for thinking outside the box to design, prototype, and build their idea to satisfy a problem definition. One of these teams are the ones responsible for creating the Tripod Pump Frame which holds an irrigation pump but for much cheaper than the previous model. This product, according to the school, became the biggest selling pump in Myanmar. Theses tripods can be used to help solve a global problem of access to clean drinking water particularly in underdeveloped areas where water is scarce and you have to sometimes walk several...

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Engineering Overview

...Engineering Overview The Field Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to research and develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial applications. Engineers design products, machinery to build those products, plants in which those products are made, and the systems that ensure the quality of the products and the efficiency of the workforce and manufacturing process. Engineers design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and transit systems. They develop and implement improved ways to extract, process, and use raw materials, such as petroleum and natural gas. They develop new materials that both improve the performance of products and take advantage of advances in technology. They harness the power of the sun, the Earth, atoms, and electricity for use in supplying the Nation's power needs, and create millions of products using power. They analyze the impact of the products they develop or the systems they design on the environment and on people using them. Engineering knowledge is applied to improving many things, including the quality of healthcare, the safety of food products, and the operation of financial systems. Engineers consider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers determine precisely what function the robot needs to perform; design and test the robot's components; fit the...

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Software Engineering

...Computer machinery (2007, April 12). Computing Degrees & Careers » Software Engineering. Retrieved February 23, 2014, from http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12. Web This article discusses software engineering and the definition of basically what it is, it states that it is concerned with maintaining software systems and developing one that will work correctly and be very dependable for the user, they have to keep in mind as well that there projects need to be affordable and that they assure reliability and they meet all the users needs. The actual article states, “Software engineering (SE) is concerned with developing and maintaining software systems that behave reliably and efficiently, are affordable to develop and maintain, and satisfy all the requirements that customers have defined for them.” (computer machinery) The article talks about how critical it is for the application to be safe especially because of how expensive the software system are. Software Engineering integrates a significance of mathematics in computer science and practices the origins of engineering. This article give a good definition of what software engineering is about, it doesn’t give enough detail on what exactly they are doing everyday its very broad and doesn’t narrow it down. It begins to talk more about how to get into the job itself, instead of focusing on exactly what they do, it gives a description of all the step you need to take to get there. It strays away from what you’re...

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Reverse Engineering

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