...Enzyme Inhibition Enzyme inhibitors are substances e.g. A drug, toxin, food which inhibits the action of a certain enzyme by inhibiting or decreasing their biosynthesis. Two types of Enzyme Inhibition: 1. Reversible inhibition Inhibitors bind to enzymes through non-covalent bonds, thus dilution of the enzyme-inhibitor complex results in dissociation of the reversibly bound inhibitor. • Competitive inhibition: The enzyme inhibitor and the substrate competes to bind reversibly to the same site of the enzyme. E.g. Lipitor, Zocor are statin drugs which inhibits HMG-CoA reductase competitively and inhibit synthesis of cholesterol by lowering plasma cholesterol levels. • Noncompetitive inhibition: Inhibitor binds the enzyme somewhere different from where the substrate binds. The inhibitor binds to the enzyme and reduces its activity but does not affect the binding of substrate. E.g. Lead noncompetitively binds with Ferro chelatase and inhibits insertion of iron into protoporphyrin. 2. Irreversible inhibition...
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...Enzyme inhibition refers to a decrease in enzyme-related processes, enzyme production, or enzyme activity. Various clinically critical communications between drugs result from CYP450 hindrance. CYP450 inhibitors are diverse in their selectivity toward proteins and are arranged by their systems of activity. A few medications are strong focused inhibitors and go after the dynamic site, yet they are not a substrate for the compound (e.g., quinidine and CYP2D6), while different medications are noncompetitive inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole and CYP3A4). Catalyst restraint can cause numerous unfriendly medication connections that have a tendency to happen all the more quickly (inside two or three days) than those seen with protein acceptance, as they...
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...SCIE206-1303B-07 UNIT 2 IP 2 ‘Photosynthesis and Respiration’ Running Head: Photosynthesis and Respiration 1 Photosynthesis and Respiration The process in which carbon dioxide is transformed into organic compounds from sunlight is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis, a natural process, offers every aerobic being on earth oxygen and also assists in maintaining a natural percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere (Cloud, David 2011). Human beings would not exist without this process. Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, plants, and certain bacteria. In contrast, respiration takes glucose (sugar), along with other organic compounds oxidizing them to develop carbon dioxide. Respiration is the metabolic reaction in organic cells, biochemical energy into adenosine triphosphate/ATP. Each cycle depends on the other, in order for the ‘complete cycle’ to transpire. When it comes to receiving energy from the foods we eat, photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases it. Both cycles are important to ensure continuous life on earth. Photosynthesis and respiration are connected between plants and animals based on the reactants and products of both pathways by the usage of autotrophs and heterotrophs. An autotroph are organisms the have the ability to manufacture their own food (“Autotroph vs. Heterotroph” n.d.). Heterotroph organisms are essential in respiration and are not an...
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...The Importance of Photosynthesis and Respiration Explain how photosynthesis and respiration are linked in order to provide you with energy from the food you eat: Photosynthesis is the process in which certain life forms are able to use sunlight to create energy. This energy is created by making carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll. Plants release large amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere as they produce much more than needed during the photosynthesis process. Aerobic respiration is an important process in life as we know it. This process further breaks down molecules and sugars using oxygen. During this process adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is created, used to store and transfer energy to cells throughout the body. (Aerobic respiration, 2010) Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are both needed for each other to be able to perform their primary functions. One without the other would not work properly. Between both of these processes we receive three main sources; water, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Plants and animals require all three of these in order to live. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are a lot like a circle. Animals need oxygen to live and emit carbon dioxide, while plants need carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and omit oxygen, thus completing the circle. (Photosynthesis, 2005) During the photosynthesis stage a plant produces oxygen that aerobic respiration will use in order to break molecules, during this process electrons...
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...Enzymes activity plays an important role on living organisms. Its activity can be affected by different factors, including environmental and molecular elements. Enzyme inhibition by some molecules can be competitive or noncompetitive according to the binding mechanism. The aim of this study was to determine the type of inhibition occurred by the phenylthiourea (PTU) on the catechol oxidase enzyme. Different substrate concentrations, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mL, and presence (1mL) and absent of PTU was analyzed. Products were measured at 380 nm. Results showed product only when PTU was not present, except for in one tube. A PTU noncompetitive inhibition is proposed based on the inability to obtained product even when the substrate concentration is increased....
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...concentration of p-nitrophenyl phosphate in relationship to absorbance over the span of 70 seconds, the data obtained in table 5.1, the different substrate concentration 0.9mM, 0.675mM, 0.45mM, 0.225mM, 0.09mM, 0.045mM, 0.0225mM. keeping our enzyme constant at 100μL, what we concluded is a significant decrease on the absorbance as we decrease the substrate concentration, for example our initial reading of absorbance at 0.09mM concentration was 0.558, the same reading at 0.0225mM was significantly lower (0.176) thus indicating that substrate concentration does influence absorbance if the enzyme concentration remains constant....
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...Notes Enzymes: What must occur for a reaction to proceed? Collision Theory: 1. Reactants must collide 2. Reactants must have enough energy 3. Reactants must hit with proper orientation Here is morbid example of collision theory. How do a train and school bus react to give a train with engine damage and a school bus in two pieces? [pic] If you look back to the three conditions required for a reaction to occur, we can relate them to his terrible accident. In the collision theory, condition number one requires that the train must collide with the bus. Condition number two requires that the train and bus collide with enough energy for the reaction to occur, meaning the train must hit bus with enough energy, not merely tap the bus. The third condition requires that the train and bus hit with the proper orientation. If the bus hit the side of the train, it will not slice the train in have. The train must t-bone the bus. Hopefully this visual will help you to remember the condition required for a reaction to occur. Energy Diagrams: Energy diagrams are also called reaction progress diagrams as they depict the energy of the chemicals involved in the reaction through out the course of the reaction. The following is an example of an exothermic reaction: [pic] A catalyst will lower the activation energy of a reaction. The result is shown in the following reaction progress diagram for an exothermic reaction. [pic] The green line in the transition state is...
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...Have you ever wonder what is the basic structure of life was? The Process of photosynthesis and cellular respiration? Or even plant and animal cell structure and functions? The Process of photosynthesis and cellular respiration is a metabolic process in which inorganic material is turned into the organic material with the help of sunlight and with use of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis gives out Oxygen. Respiration in animals uses oxygen produced from the atmosphere produced by plants to generate energy in the metabolic process undergoing several stages. Respiration uses oxygen and gives back the carbon dioxide and hence forms the raw reactant for the plants to utilize again. Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is used to drive the synthesis of carbohydrates. Aside from light energy, the reactants of photosynthesis include carbon dioxide and water. Because photosynthesis involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, it is referred to as anabolic. Aerobic respiration is a process that utilizes oxygen to oxidize organic molecules (such as glucose). The energy stored in organic molecules is used to generate ATP. Aerobic respiration is a catabolic reaction, because complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones. Photosynthesis releases oxygen as a byproduct. This oxygen results from the splitting of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis. The oxygen released into the atmosphere can then be used by organisms that respire aerobically...
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...GRT Task 1 A. DNA Replication * Helicase : An enzyme unravels the DNA * Primase : An enzyme synthesizes the RNA primers * DNA Polymerase I : An enzyme removes the RNA primer and puts in the nucleotides which make the DNA in the direction 5’ to 3’. * DNA Polymerase III : An enzyme catalyze the synthesis of the new strand in a 5´->3´ direction. * Topoisomerase : An enzyme can break and reform the bond in DNA B. The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA * DNA Polymerase I : An enzyme removes the RNA primer and puts in the nucleotides which make the DNA in the direction 5’ to 3’. * DNA Polymerase III : An enzyme catalyze the synthesis of the new strand in a 5´->3´ direction. * Ligase : An enzyme catalyzes the joining of Okazaki fragments into a single DNA strand. C. mRNA in Transcription & Translation * RNA Polymerase 1 : An enzyme recognizes and binds promoter * RNA Polymerase 2 : An enzyme transcribes the pre-mRNA strand * Ribozyme : Performing speacial biochemical reactions like protein enzyme D. Role of RNA polymerase inhibition in causing the poisonous effect of the death cap mushroom * The death cap mushroom is one of the dealiest poisonous mushroom in the world. It is fatal because of its toxic called alpha-amanitin. * α-amanitin has a high specificity for RNA polymerase II in the liver. By inhibiting this enzyme it prevents the formation of mRNA and stops protein synthesis...
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...original diagram, or series of diagrams, with clear labels, that demonstrates the process of DNA replication at the biochemical level. Click here to learn how to insert images into a Google Document. Check to see that you described the function of the enzymes (enzyme names end in “-ase”) as part of the labels for the diagram(s) and that you labeled the following: • DNA • replication fork • helicase • single-stranded binding proteins • leading strand • lagging strand • 5’ and 3’ ends of all DNA • primase • RNA primer • DNA polymerase III • Okazaki fragments (Borges, 2014) B. Insert your original diagram, or series of diagrams, with clear labels, that show the role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA. Check to see that you described the function of the enzymes (enzyme names end in “-ase”) as part of the labels for the diagram(s) and that you labeled the following: • DNA • Okazaki fragments • DNA polymerase I • DNA ligase (Borges, 2014) C. Insert your original diagram, or series of diagrams, with clear labels, that demonstrates the role of mRNA in transcription and translation. Check to see that you described the function of the enzymes (enzyme names end in “-ase”) as part of the labels for the diagram(s), that you labeled the cellular locations of each process, and that you labeled the following transcription components in your diagram(s): • DNA • mRNA • RNA polymerase • nucleus ...
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...Abstract Enzymes are molecules that act as catalysts in the regulation of chemical and biological reactions in humans and other species. Every organ in humans depends on enzymes, as they are essential for optimal health. Most enzymes are protein molecules, which increase the reaction rate and function best under optimal conditions or temperatures related to the environment and the host organism where the enzyme is found. In this experiment, the digestive enzyme amylase was used in order to determine the optimal temperature for enzyme function from human and fungal (Aspergillus oryzae) sources in various temperatures. The digestive enzyme amylase that will be tested is responsible for the breakdown of the polysaccharide starch into the monosaccharide maltose. In addition, using Iodine as a test marker for the presence of starch, the ability of amylase to break down starch to maltose was also investigated. In the presence of starch, Iodine turns from yellow to black. To that end, human saliva, containing amylase, and fungal amylase were each added to separate test tubes along with a mild starch solution and placed at various temperatures as follows, 0C, 40C, 60C and 95C. The mixture of amylase and starch was then plated onto spot wells containing Iodine as a marker for starch which yielded a color reaction based on the amount of starch versus the break down product, maltose. The results showed that human amylase functions optimally at 40C as demonstrated by an abrupt color...
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...Unit One: Biochemistry Organic chemistry: chemistry of carbon based molecules * Life on our planet is carbon based * All life is carbon based, so to understand how biological processes occur we need to consider organic chemistry Hydrocarbons: molecules that are entirely made from carbon and hydrogen * Carbon you can get a lot of shape (rings etc) * Mostly non-metals (hydrogen, carbon, oxygen etc) make up molecules in our cells * Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen make 96% of living organisms however 21 elements found as well * Most of 4% consists of calcium, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium Functional Groups * Most functional groups are ionic or strongly polar which makes them very attracted to other ionic or polar molecules * Non polar portions do not attract other molecules so do not help initiate chemical reactions * So, some polar functional groups are strongly attracted to water and so can often be dissolved in the cytosol of the cell, example ethane is hydrocarbon doesn’t have functional group so does not dissolve in water and is gas at room temperature however ethanol has functional group so highly soluble in water Carbon Chemistry * Because it has has 4 electrons in shell so can form 4 covalent bonds to form these shapes * Can form bonds with others but can also bind with each other * Carbon containing rings can join to make polymers Dehydration and Hydrolysis...
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...an enzyme Abstract The experiment was to analyse what reaction temperature would have on Amylase enzyme. We heated alpha amylase solution to set temperatures then tested for the presents starch with iodine solution. Any starch would turn the iodine black. Once the starch had broken down the iodine would remain brown to suggest the presents of maltose. Usually I would expect to find that the reactions would increase as the temperature increased. After it reached its optimum temperature then the reaction would slow down rapidly or stop all together. However throughout the experiment we uncovered a number of flaws, the flaws would have contributed to the failure of this experiment and the rejection of my hypothesis. Introduction Enzymes are proteins that were made during protein synthesis. They are globular in shape and of a tertiary structure that has an active site. The protein molecules act as a catalyse biochemical reaction in living organisms. (Indge, B (1993), A-Z Biology. London. Wearset. 90). A catalyse is something that makes a chemical reaction happen more quickly without itself being changed. This means that enzymes can be re-used. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy necessary to start a reaction. As less energy is necessary, biochemical reactions can take place at the temperatures and pressures found in living cells. (Indge, B (1993), A-Z Biology. London. Wearset. 90). The diagram on the left illustrates the action of an enzyme. As...
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...Enzymes An enzyme is a protein molecule that helps to increase the rate in which chemical reactions occur. Recognizing an enzyme is very simple as they are named after a substrate with the suffix “ase” attached to the end. In terms of activation energy, an enzyme’s function is to decrease the amount of energy necessary for the reaction to take place. An enzyme inhibitor prevents that function from happening by binding to the enzyme. There are two different ways that enzyme inhibition can occur. The substrate imposter can either bind directly to the active site so the real substrate cannot bind or it can bind to a different site other than the active site. When it binds to another site it causes the enzyme to change its shape, therefore not allowing the real substrate to be accepted into the active site. Two different theories exist that explain how substrates fit into the active site of an enzyme. First is the Lock and Key theory which states that a substrate (key) fits into the active site of an enzyme (lock) perfectly without any change of shape of the active site at all, according to Elmhurst College’s virtual chemistry book. This theory differs from the Induced Fit theory, which states that when a substrate binds to the active site, the active site’s shape slightly changes to perfectly fit the substrate. Just like a protein, the class of macromolecule that an enzyme belongs to, the function of an enzyme depends greatly on its tertiary structure. If the structure of an...
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...Catalysis. “Bio” prefix denotes biological and “catalysis” means the acceleration of a chemical reaction due to a catalyst. So in general biocatalysis is the use of biological (natural) catalysts, such as enzymes. These biological catalysts are used to transform organic compounds chemically. An enzyme is a protein catalyst that is responsible for the reactions in your body. Enzymes help with digestion of food, production of essential nutrients, movement of muscles, etcetera. Enzymes not only exist in our body but are used for quite a lot of other...
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