...Female Offenders: is Chivalry Dead? Intro: In the last two decades, there has been a definite shift in the leniency of sentencing female offenders in the criminal justice system. It has been suggested the shift turning to harsher, more severe punishments is due to more female practitioners in the criminal justice system which subsequently reduced the chivalry hypothesis. The aim of this paper is to provide a review of the literature and empirical research regarding past and present studies of female offenders, the chivalry hypothesis, the differences in male and female convictions, and to answer the enduring question: Is chivalry dead? While this paper does not incorporate all of the literature available, it does offer a good snap shot of many pertinent studies conducted regarding these topics and the issues pertaining to them. Female Offenders Then and Now Over the years, the empirical evidence supporting the position that women offenders are treated less harshly than their male counterparts has been at best inconsistent. (Burnett, 1994: Coombs, 1995: Denno, 1994: Johnson & Nagel, 1994: Klein & Kress, 2014). The writers of these studies used a variety of theses to explain the leniency. Some suggested women are treated with chivalry and thus given lighter sentences for similar offenses created by men. While others suggested the leniency was due to the majority of females in the court system are first time offenders. In 1994, Kathleen Davy published Gender...
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...rehabilitation programs have been effective in reducing recidivism among prison convicts since they are mostly focused on treating the criminal causing behavior of prisoners by eliminating completely the factors or circumstances that drive them to commit criminal acts. Criminologists such as Martinson who conducted research on the effectiveness of rehabilitative programs such as educational, community based and transcendental programs noted that rehabilitative programs had a higher efficacy when they were oriented towards providing treatment to prison convicts so as to reduce recidivism. Martinson noted that both the educational and transcendental rehabilitative programs were designed to provide prisoners with life skills that they could use to manage their criminal causing behavior as well as equip them with technical skills that would improve the quality of their lives (Prison conditions, 2013). Rehabilitative programs that are focused on the principles of effective intervention are able to target the known factors of recidivism thereby necessitating change and also enabling the incorporation of cognitive or behavioral treatments to reinforce the behavior of the criminal offender by eliminating criminal thinking patterns. Principles of effective intervention ensure that rehabilitative programs are able to take into account the various characteristics of offenders which would affect their response to rehabilitative treatments. According to various rehabilitation programs such as vocational...
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...In the traditional study of crime, women have generally been perceived as disregarded and discriminated in the criminal justice system. Various stereotypes and assumptions about females in the criminal justice system, saw feminist perspectives challenge the theories, concepts and assumptions of those involved in the study of crime (Bryant, 2014). This essay begins by firstly providing a brief description and its origins, how feminist theories causes crime, how its theory defines crime, the multiple feminist perspectives within feminism and how feminist criminology attempts to combat crime. It will then discuss the relevance and how feminist theory influences the criminal justice system, such as women’s role as professionals, as well as women as offenders and victims (Schram & Tibbetts 2013, p. 285). Finally, this essay will examine the applicability to Australian society by exploring if the suggested causes of crime apply to Australian society. It will lastly draw on the criticisms of feminist criminology and how the different types of feminist perspectives lessons the relevance of this theory in Australian society. Outlining the theory Feminist criminology first developed in the 1960’s and 1970’s which was closely associated with the emergence of the Second Wave of Feminism (White, Haines & Asquith 2012, p. 143). The Second Wave of Feminism saw the advent of many issues such as social, political and material inequalities (White, Haines & Asquith 2012, p. 143). Because men...
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...In Canada, for many years there has been growing concern and controversy about the over-representation of Aboriginals within the Criminal Justice System, a considerable problem that has been found to be more even extreme with Aboriginals female offenders. For Aboriginal women the rates of incarceration are particularly disturbing. Aboriginal women are over-represented in the federal prison system. They represent only 4% of the women in Canada yet account for 32% of the women in federal prisons. The number of Aboriginal women federally incarcerated has increased by 151% between 1997 and 2006 (Elizabeth Fry Society, 4). Aboriginal women are not only disproportionately over-represented but also the fastest growing population sentenced to federal prisons. The over-representation is even more pronounced in terms of Aboriginal women incarceration rates: As of April 2010, Aboriginal women accounted for 32.6% of the total female offender population (SOURCE 5). This means that one out of every three women federally incarcerated is of Aboriginal descent (Correctional Service Canada, 2009/2010, at 18). Furthermore they are over-represented in the maximum security prison population, making up 45% of the maximum security federally sentenced women, 44% of the medium security population and 18% of minimum security women in 2006 (Elizabeth Fry Society, 4). The justice system has played a major role in the creation of poor social conditions in Aboriginal communities today. It has failed to provide...
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...in the United States. The most common crimes for women offenders are drug related or property crimes. Education, or the lack thereof, is a major component in the incarceration of women. There are various rehabilitation programs for female inmates re-entering society, in hopes for them to become productive members of society once again. Besides the fact that they are incarcerated, there are many different emotional, health related, and family issues that women offenders have to deal with. Over the past 3 decades, the female prison population has risen 832%.Whether the motivator is money, addiction, pressure, or for self, there is a growing trend in the United States involving women, crime, and prison, and the statistics surrounding them are not only growing but disturbing. The rate of incarceration varies by race. By mid 2008 Caucasian females lead in incarceration rates over African American, Latino, and Asian offenders. An issue that was once taboo, has now become the norm. The person who was once looked upon as the backbone of the family and the household is slowly disappearing and becoming a leading statistic in our criminal justice system. When discussing criminal behavior, it was usually only seen from the crimes men committed; women offenders were rarely discussed mainly because female criminal behavior has been commonly perceived as a less serious problem than male criminal behavior. Now, women offenders are becoming more noticed in today’s society. It is fair...
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...Women Offenders in the United States By the end of 2007, there were more than 1.27 million women in prison or jail or on parole or probation in the United States. The most common crimes for women offenders are drug related or property crimes. Education, or the lack thereof, is a major component in the incarceration of women. There are various rehabilitation programs for female inmates re-entering society, in hopes for them to become productive members of society once again. Besides the fact that they are incarcerated, there are many different emotional, health related, and family issues that women offenders have to deal with. Over the past 3 decades, the female prison population has risen 832%.Whether the motivator is money, addiction, pressure, or for self, there is a growing trend in the United States involving women, crime, and prison, and the statistics surrounding them are not only growing but disturbing. The rate of incarceration varies by race. By mid 2008 Caucasian females lead in incarceration rates over African American, Latino, and Asian offenders. An issue that was once taboo, has now become the norm. The person who was once looked upon as the backbone of the family and the household is slowly disappearing and becoming a leading statistic in our criminal justice system. When discussing criminal behavior, it was usually only seen from the crimes men committed; women offenders were rarely discussed mainly because female criminal behavior has been commonly...
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...Generation Y has a different perspective of females than the former generations. There have been three major waves of feminism evolution. The first wave was in the 1800s, women were not allowed to vote or participate in any public or political opinions. During this time, women demanded their right to vote. The second wave of feminism developed in the 1960s where females of certain marginalized groups (working class women, blacks and prisoners) felt they weren't being treated equally and fairly like men and upper-class women. The civil rights activist fought very much for their rights during this time. However, not a lot resulted during this wave which led to the third wave of feminism evolution. The third wave developed to improve the second wave short comings. This is the new generation of feminists who know their rights and what gender equality is. Society generally favored men hence the need for social movements towards females rights to be heard. Feminism and Criminology Feminist criminology evolved during the time women were being judged on their gender rather than the type they committed. Gender inequality is basically due to men trying to control women and their sexuality. Feminists insist that sexism is the most common form of human oppression (Harrison, Wendy 2006). For many decades, different cultures have categorized women into 'either/or/ roles. In the 1960s women were categorized as either professionals or criminal. When it came to stereotypes, black women...
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...Retreat in the Criminal Justice System Stephanie Karam ENG1100BB Karenza Sutton-Bennett November 25, 2014 A Retreat in the CJS 2 Abstract In contemporary culture, an emphasis on a “tough on crime” criminal justice system has been a topic of debate amongst all citizens. In this paper, a comparison of statistical evidence and treatment rates will be discussed. The purpose is to stipulate evidence of declining crime rates, and alternative sanctions to the crime bill c-10. In addition, a consultation of rehabilitation methods and apprehension of why there is a disproportionality of Aboriginal people in the Criminal Justice System will be explored. The data discovered suggests that the legislation was enacted for political reasoning, without the consideration of underlying causes of criminal activity. Furthermore, rehabilitation treatments have shown to lower recidivism, and are used to stress the importance on investigating the root cause of criminal behaviour. Finally, the restorative justice model is adopted to promote the sense of moral wrong in the individual’s crime. A Retreat in the CJS 3 In recent years, the Canadian government has been working on implementing a stricter justice system. The omnibus crime bill C-10, was enacted in order to achieve this measure. The act consists of a concept in which includes harsher sentencing, mandatory minimums and a zero tolerance policy. This legislation attempts to put victims first, instead of defending the rights of offenders. What the...
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...Erik Erikson- Adolescence ages (16 to 18) youths may experience a crisis described as a struggle between ego identity and role diffusion Ego Identity- is formed when persons develop a firm sense of who they are and what they stand for. Role Diffusion occurs when youths spread themselves too thin, experience personal uncertainly, and place themselves at the mercy of leaders who promise to give them a sense of identity they cannot develop for themselves. At risk youths- young people who are extremely vulnerable to the negative consequences of school failure, substance abuse, and early sexuality. Juvenile delinquency- participation in illegal behavior by a minor who falls under a statutory age limit. Chronic juvenile offenders- youths who have been arrested four or more time during their minority and perpetuate a striking majority of serious criminal acts. This small group known as the chronic 6 percent is believed to engage in a significant portion of all delinquent behavior. Juvenile justice system- the segment of the justice system, including law enforcement officers, the courts, and correctional agencies, designed to treat youthful offenders. FBI- Federal Bureau of Investigation- is the arm of the U.S. Dept. of Justice that investigates violations of federal law, gathers crime statistics, runs a comprehensive crime laboratory, and helps train local law enforcement officers. UCR- Uniform Crime Reports- complied by the FBI, the UCR is the most widely used source of national...
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...Emerging Research or Policy Issue Related To The Study of Race, Crime, and Juvenile Justice. Ronita D. Hemingway CRJC 352 Special Problems in Criminal Justice Professor Lori Guevera July 7, 2014 The most important emerging research or policy issue related to the study of race, crime, and juvenile justice system is the appropriate actions in the handling of juveniles. Since the start of the juvenile court in 1899, programs and policies have been implemented. Even with the policies and programs that were implemented to deter juveniles, juvenile crimes are still major social issues within our society. As some research has pointed out, kids who display delinquent juvenile behavior early in their youth stages are at a greater risk of offending within their adolescent years. When it comes to race, crime, and the juvenile justice, violence, substance abuse, and mental health are the three main issues that should be focused upon on when dealing with male and female delinquents. Individualized rehabilitation treatment was a highly recognized policy and practice during the 1970s and 1980s. This model focused on the placement of juveniles, who offended, to be placed in a setting that is community-based and less/non-secure. In 1960, the rights of juveniles had rose, which included due process. Due process gave juveniles the right to counsel and their protection against self-incrimination, in which juvenile courts started performing in the same manner as adult courts. Other form...
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...Family and Gender CJS/230 Gender and Family CJS/240 Tiffiny West September 8, 2013 Nicole James Today the traditional family of two parents with the father working to provide and the mother at home caring for the children is occurring less often. Women and working more and spending less time with their children whereas men seem to be increasing the time they spend with their children. More children are also living with only one parent rather than two. Siegel & Welsh (2005) states that “as many as 40 percent of White children and 75 percent of African-American children will experience parental separation or divorce before they reach age sixteen…” (p. 157). Changes or disruption in the family unit has the potential to have a lasting effect on children. Primarily, children learn values and attitudes which guide their actions from their family unit. Many experts believe that a broken home can determine a child’s law abiding behavior. Several studies show that children who have been through family breakups are more prone to delinquency and hyperactivity. Blended families, or step-parent families, are occurring more often yet are less stable than biological families. Sociologist Sara McLanahan found that children who live with both biological parents do better than children who are raised without their biological father. These children are less likely to find and keep a job, finish high...
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...Booklet 2 - Crime and Variables Patterns of Official Statistics: Crimes reported by victims and the general public, and recorded by the police Crimes detect and solved by the police Crimes reported to the British Crime Survey. This has occurred annually since 1983, interviewing approx 47000 adults about their experiences as victims of crimes such as burglary and assault. Problems with official statistics some sociologists, such as Barry Hindess, have argued that official statistics on crime, do have serious deficiencies. There are several reasons for these deficiencies. there are many reasons why the public may not report all crimes to the police: they may not realise they’ve been a victim, embarrassment, they may implicate themselves in a criminal act, etc. Another reason there are also many reasons why the police may not take action against all offences which are known to them. Sociological studies of the police, such as that conducted by Simon Holdaway in the 1980s, demonstrate that the police simply cannot take action against all offences which they identify, and therefore have to prioritize their activities. Gender and Crime – What the statistics say? – The statistics are correct - womens crime rate is lower Reasons why: The statistics are correct - mens crime rate is lower Reasons why: The statistics are incorrect – women commit more crime - they are not caught / treated more leniently Women are committing more crime today Women and victimisation ...
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...and treatment of female offenders There are nearly 2.1 million violent female offenders annually in the United States (Greenbelt et al. 2000). Three out of four female violent offenders commit simple assaults, and three out of four female violent offenders attack other women. The incarceration rate for women is increasing at nearly twice the rate of men (Gater, 2005). Some risk factors contributing to the increase in criminal behavior among women include spousal abuse, substance abuse, and mental illness. The treatment of female offenders is becoming an increasingly important issue. Female offenders are often incarcerated in facilities designed for male treatment and rehabilitation needs. In the past, it was considered that male and female inmates had similar treatment needs, but as correctional administrators become aware of the increasing numbers and the differing needs of female offenders, they must re-evaluate the available treatment programs and begin to implement revisions to the management of program plans. It is now clear that differences in treatment between women and men within the judicial and correctional systems often have harmed rather than helped women (Harris 1998). In addition, Harris (1998) adds that evidence continues to grow of ways in which women’s experiences have been tied to their race and class, as well as the part of the country in which they lived and other personal characteristics. Research suggests that female offenders differ from male...
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...feminist scholars blamed qualitative studies which many times failed to bring out the realities of women’s lived experiences (Price & Sokoloff, 2004). Although these experiences are unfortunate common struggles for women offenders, there seemed to be limited research that explored how those struggles in women’s lives seemed to affect their likelihood of recidivism. At last, the “pathways” perspective, which investigates whether women have distinct pathways to initial crime and recidivism compared to men, is improved mainly by qualitative methodologies. In the current study: Gendered Pathways: A Quantitative Investigation of Women Probationers’ Paths to Incarceration, featured in the Journal of Criminal Justice and Behavior, authors Emily J. Salisbury and Patricia Van Voorhis quantitatively investigate women’s possibilities of ongoing criminal behavior (2009). Although some implications did arise, this study is important to the field by offering explanations of female offending which can offer proper interventions to help reduce recidivism. Throughout this paper I will be summarizing and critiquing the above article. The mentioned study uses a path analytic statistical procedure with a sample of 313 newly convicted women probationers selected by the Missouri Department of Corrections according to a stratified sample, to investigate three gendered pathways to women offenders’ incarceration: 1) a pathway beginning with childhood victimization that contributed to historical and current...
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...Criminology is the scientific study of crime and criminals whereas forensic psychology is the interaction of the study of psychology and the law, it is also a branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes (Haward, 1953) furthermore they hold a doctorate degree in a field of psychology. The role of a criminologist is to investigate a variety of reasons to why criminals commit crimes. In order to investigate how these crimes are committed, they must consider psychological and social factors furthermore consider if any biological situations could have led the criminal to commit the crime. The role of a forensic psychologist is to provide the legal system with sound psychological information from a sound research base (Grisso, 1987). A forensic psychologist role is similar to a criminologist role to an extent that they also work with prisoners and offenders moreover they also apply the psychological theory to criminal behaviour to figure out what makes criminals commit these crimes. The premium goal of a forensic psychologist is to The first act of psychologist taking part in the justice court was in 1896 when Albert testified at the trial of Munich man accused of murdering three women. Within the United Kingdom the prison service is the largest employer of forensic psychologist. Forensic psychologists play a critical role in the assessment of offenders and the provision of support and training for...
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