...suffer from problems such as enzyme leakage from matrix when the interactions are relatively weak. Nonspecific Adsorption The simplest immobilization method is nonspecific adsorption, which is mainly based on physical adsorption or ionic binding. In physical adsorption, the enzymes are attached to the matrix through hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, or hydrophobic interactions; whereas in ionic bonding the enzymes are bound through salt linkages. This method is the easiest method of preparing immobilized enzymes, being based on the physical adsorption of the enzyme molecules onto the surface of solid matrices. Ionic binding Ionic binding provides a slightly more specific way of attaching an enzyme to a carrier: many ion exchange resins, example DEAE-...
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...are distinguished from globular proteins by their filamentous, elongated form. Also, fibrous proteins have low solubility in water compared with high solubility in water of globular proteins. Most of them play structural roles in animal cells and tissues, holding things together. Fibrous proteins have amino acid sequences that favour a particular kind of secondary structure which, in turn, confer particular mechanical properties on the proteins. Examples: * Keratins – found in wool, feathers, hooves, silk, and fingernails * Collagens – found in tendons, bone, and other connective tissue * Elastins – found in blood vessels and ligaments * Myosins – found in muscle tissue * Fibrin – found in blood clots Enzymes * Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms. They are...
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...informational macromolecules, * active transport and muscle contraction. * Biological oxidation-reduction reactions; * flow of electrons * dehydrogenations * redox potentials * electron carriers * dehydrogenases * Nature of metabolic reactions: anabolism, catabolism. * regulation of metabolism. Scope of the course * (Review) the laws of thermodynamics and the quantitative relationships among free energy, enthalpy, and entropy. * describe the special role of ATP in biological energy exchanges. Consider the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in living cells, the energetic of electron-transfer reactions, and the electron carriers commonly employed as cofactors of the enzymes that catalyze these reactions. Reference Books 1. Lehninger, PPls of Biochemistry Fourth Edition David L Nelson and 2. Elementary Biophysics. An introduction. PK. Srivastave Alpha Science Oxford, UK 2005 3. Biophysics. V. Pattabhi and N. Gautham. Second Edition 2009 Alpha Science Oxford, UK Introduction * Both plant and animals are made of cells. * The cells are highly complex and ordered structures but unstable and need constant use of energy to maintain their ordered structure and specific activity. * Both plant and animal cells require energy for growth and maintenance. * Lack of energy supply to the cell causes...
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...Microorganisms are referred as predominant source of commercial enzyme (Wiwapat et al., 2002, Kvesitadze, Kvesitadze 1990, Kutateladze et al., 2009). Due to diverse spectrum of applications enzyme production now became a multi-billion dollar business (Bhat, 2000). The market of the technical enzymes showed great diversity both in terms of the applications as well as the consumption. It has been evaluated that global sale of enzymes was $1.7–2 billion in 2005 which is expected to grow in the forthcoming years exponentially with the increase of industrialization. Typically, pectinases shares a huge market value up to $75 million (Godfrey and West, 1996). Pectinases is one of the hydrolytic enzymes that have diverse degree of applications in biotechnological industry. Pectinase is one of the 20 enzymes that have been globally marketed. Pectinase catalyzing the degradation of pectin containing compounds are of huge industrial significance (Spanga et al., 1995). Pectinases are now considered to be central part of complex processing of juice in food industry and removal of sizing agents in textile industries (Kashyap et al., 2001). They cause a drastic increase in filtration efficacy of juices and increase yield by aiding in clarification. (Joslyn et al., 1952) (Brawman 1981). They are also used as wood preservative (Fogarty 1973) and in liquefaction, maceration and extraction of vegetable tissues (Charley 1969 and Bohdziewiez and Bodzek 1994). Different extraction procedures like...
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...TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. IA (Alkaline Metals) 1.1. H………………………………………………………………………..2 1.2. Li………………………………………………………………………..2 1.3. Na………………………………………………………………………2 1.4. K………………………………………………………………………..3 1.5. Rb………………………………………………………………………3 1.6. Cs………………………………………………………………………3 1.7. Fr……………………………………………………………………….4 1. IIA (Alkaline Earth Metals) 2.8. Be………………………………………………………………………4 2.9. Mg………………………………………………………………………4 2.10. Ca………………………………………………………………………4 2.11. Sr……………………………………………………………………….4 2.12. Ba………………………………………………………………………5 2.13. Ra………………………………………………………………………5 1. Group IA 2.1. H Hydrogen binds with Oxygen to form water. Without water, we can not survive. In fact, we are mostly made of water. 2.2. Li Lithium does not occur naturally in biological systems and has no biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabilizer in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder (manic-depression) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. The metal lithium is not essential for any biological functions, but was found to exist in extremely tiny...
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...Food Processing and Technology I FS 222-061 Assignment no. 1 PART 1 # Homework 1: Food deterioration methods Submitted by:- Submitted to:- Surjit Kaur Xavier Aguirre Garza 300852404 INTRODUCTION The spoilage of food is the process in which food deteriorates up to that point in which it is not digestible to eat for humans or its quality of edibility is not good. Organoleptic properties, nutritional value, safety, and aesthetic appeal varies with food deterioration. The food is subjected to physical, chemical, and biological deterioration respectively. Various causes of food deterioration are as follows a) The growth of micro-organisms (bacteria, yeast, and mold etc.) b) Activities of natural food c) By Insects, parasites, and rodents d) Temperature (high or low) e) Dryness or Moisture content f) Air (mostly oxygen) g) Light h) Time (King, 2004) Furthermore, the major types of food deterioration are:- a) Microbiological spoilage. b) Enzymatic spoilage c) Chemical spoilage d) Fat oxidation e) Environmental spoilage EXAMPLES OF FOOD SPOILAGE AND FOOD PRODUCTS TABLE:- It shows various types of foods having spoilage under various conditions Food preservation involves the a) Use of heat b) Cold c) Drying (water activity) d) Acid (pH) e) Sugar f) Salt ...
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...Matto Massaad 1/19/16 AP Bio Mr. Duehr Cystic Fibrosis In 2010, two sisters, diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, went on America’s Got Talent to show the world that they would not let this horrible disease drag them down. People said from the start, according to Christina and Ali, “they would never be able to sing.” They were from a family of four children who were all diagnosed with cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is a single gene disorder. This disease is still very life threatening even though science, medicine, and technology have come a long way since the mid 20th century. In the past fifty years, cystic fibrosis patients have gone from dying as infants to having their average life expectancy be from 3540 years old, (Kaneshiro.) Cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutation of the CFTR gene. This gene makes a protein called CFTR or (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator.) This protein balances the salt and water content on epithelial surfaces by providing a channel for the movement of chloride ions in and out of cells, (Genetics and Nutrition.) The CFTR protein can be altered if there is a fatal mutation in the CF gene. Although there are so many different mutations of this gene, the most common is found in almost ninety percent of all cystic fibrosis patients. This mutation is just a simple deletion of three nucleotides. These three nucleotides were to create the amino acid phenylalanine, but with CF, that is never made. The CF protein never makes it to the cell ...
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...ABSTRACT Food and feed is possibly the area where processing anchored in biological agents has the deepest roots. Despite this, process improvement or design and implementation of novel approaches has been consistently performed, and more so in recent years, where significant advances in enzyme engineering has fastened the place of such developments. Targeted improvements aim at enzymes with enhanced thermal and operational stability, improved specific activity, modification of pH-activity profiles, and increased product specificity, among others. This has been mostly achieved through protein engineering and enzyme immobilization, along with improvements in screening. The latter has been considerably improved due to the implementation of high-throughput techniques, and due to developments in protein expression and microbial cell culture. Expanding screening to relatively unexplored environments (marine, temperature extreme environments) has also contributed to the identification and development of more efficient biocatalysts. Technological aspects are considered, but economic aspects are also briefly addressed. INTRODUCTION: Food processing through the use of biological agents is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6,000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, and cheese and wine making, whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates from 2,000 BC, with vinegar production. Coming to modern days, in the late XIX...
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...wastewater so that excessive oxygen consumption won't become a problem when it is released to the environment. (Maier et al, 2009) Another goal of biological treatment is nitrification/denitrification. Nitrification is an aerobic process in which bacteria e.g Nitrosomonas sp, Nitrobacter sp oxidize reduced forms of nitrogen. Denitrification is an anaerobic process by which oxidized forms of nitrogen are reduced to gaseous forms, which can then escape into the atmosphere. This is important because the release of nitrogen to the aquatic environment can also cause eutrophication. (Willey et al, 2008) Another goal of biological treatment is elimination of pathogenic microorganisms either through predation or out-competition. The oxidation/stabilization of organic sludge is also of importance in biological treatment of wastewater. The oxidation of organic materials in the waste water before discharge into the environment can have profound effects on the maintenance of aquatic life and the aesthetic quality of waters. Biochemical oxidation reactions involve the conversion of organic material using oxygen and nutrients into carbon dioxide, water and new cells. The equation that expresses this is: Organic material + O2 + nutrients CO2 + H2O + new cells + nutrients + energy It can be seen from this equation that organisms use oxygen to breakdown carbon-based materials for assimilation into new cell mass and energy. (Maier et al, 2009) There are different stages of sewage treatment...
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...COCONUT INDUSTRY PROFILE I. INDUSTRY OVERVIEW Coconut production constitutes one of the four major sectors of Philippine agriculture, the others being rice, corn and sugar. About 85% of coconut production is exported in the form of copra, coconut oil and dessicated coconut. The coconut industry is a dominant sector of Philippine agriculture. The country has the world’s widest geographical area planted to coconut. Of the 12 million hectares of farmlands, 3.1M hectare is devoted to coconut and 68 out of 79 provinces are coconut areas. The Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao(ARMM) has a land area of 284,223 hectares planted with coconuts with over 32M coconut bearing trees and 88,956 documented coco farmers. Of the five (5) provinces of ARMM, the province of Basilan has the biggest coconut areas with 67,763 hectares, followed by Sulu with 66,902 hectares, then the province of Maguindanao with 63,122 hectares, Lanao del Sur with 55,150 hectares and Tawi-Tawi with 40,056 hectares (PCA-BAS). II. PRODUCT/ COMMODITY DESCRIPTION Botanically speaking, a coconut (cocos nucifera) is a fibrous one-seeded drupe, also known as a dry drupe. However, when using loose definitions, the coconut can be all three: a fruit, a nut, and a seed. The term coconut pertains to the fruit while the tree is called a coconut palm. It belongs to the Arecaceae palm family and can grow up to 6 meters tall. Called the "tree...
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...CHAPTER 9: NUCLEIC ACIDS 9.1 Levels of Structure in Nucleic Acids Primary (1o) Structure – order of bases in the polynucleotide sequence Secondary (2o) Structure – 3D conformation of backbone Tertiary (3o) Structure – supercoiling of the molecule Quaternary (4o) Structure – interaction between DNA & proteins Two principle types of nucleic acids - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - RNA (ribonucleic acid) How do DNA and RNA differ? Ribosomes: polypeptide-generating machinery of the cell Tobacco mosaic virus: nucleic acid strand winds through a cylinder of coat-protein subunits 9.2 The Covalent Structure of Polynucleotides Nucleotides: monomers of nucleic acids 1. Nitrogenous base 2. Sugar 3. Phosphoric acid residue Order of nucleic acids of DNA contains the information necessary to produce the correct amino acid sequence in the cell’s proteins What are the structures and components of the nucleotides? Nucleic acid bases (nucleobases): one or two-ring nitrogenous aromatic compound - Pyrimidines – single-ring aromatic compounds Cytosine – DNA & RNA Thymine – substitute for Uracil in DNA (sometimes in RNA) Uracil – RNA only - Purines – double-ring aromatic compounds Adenine – DNA & RNA Guanine – DNA & RNA Methylation can modify bases Nucleoside - base + sugar covalently bonded - lacks phosphate group - base forms a glycosidic linkage with sugar Ribonucleoside: β-D-ribose Deoxyribonucleoside: β-D-deoxyribose The glycosidic...
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...Fat-soluble vitamins | Significant sources | Deficiency | Toxicity | Vitamin A * Retinol * Retinal * Retinoic acid * Carotenoid : beta-carotene (precursors)Functions : * Vision maintenance of cornea, epithelial cells, mucous membranes, skin; * bone and tooth growth; * reproduction; immunity | Retinol: fortified milk, cheese,cream, butter, fortified margarine, eggs, liverBeta-carotene: spinach and other dark leafy greens; broccoli, deep orange fruits (apricots, cantaloupe) and vegetables (squash, carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin) | Diseases : Hypovitaminosis ASymptoms : Night blindness, corneal drying (xerosis), triangular gray spots on eye (Bitot’s spots), softening of the cornea (keratomalacia), and corneal degeneration and blindness (xerophthalmia); impaired immunity (infectious diseases); plugging of hair follicles with keratin, forming white lumps (hyperkeratosis) | Diseases : Hypervitaminosis ASymptoms : Chronic : Increased activity of osteoclastsb causing reduced bone density; liver abnormalities; birth defectsAcute : Blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, vertigo; increase of pressure inside skull, mimicking brain tumor; headaches; muscle incoordination | Vitamin D * ergocalciferol (vitamin D2): vitamin D derived from plants in the diet and made from the yeast and plant sterol ergosterol. * cholecalciferol (vitamin D3 or calciol): vitamin D derived from animals in the diet or made in the skin from 7-dehydrocholesterol, a precursor of cholesterol, with...
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...Article pubs.acs.org/jcim Carboxyl−Peptide Plane Stacking Is Important for Stabilization of Buried E305 of Trichoderma reesei Cel5A Chunyan He, Jingfei Chen, Liaoyuan An, Yefei Wang, Zhiyu Shu, and Lishan Yao* Laboratory of Biofuels, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266061, China S * Supporting Information ABSTRACT: Hydrogen bonds or salt bridges are usually formed to stabilize the buried ionizable residues. However, such interactions do not exist for two buried residues D271 and E305 of Trichoderma reesei Cel5A, an endoglucanase. Mutating D271 to alanine or leucine improves the enzyme thermostability quantified by the temperature T50 due to the elimination of the desolvation penalty of the aspartic acid. However, the same mutations for E305 decrease the enzyme thermostability. Free energy calculations based on the molecular dynamics simulation predict the thermostability of D271A, D271L, and E305A (compared to WT) in line with the experimental observation but overestimate the thermostability of E305L. Quantum mechanical calculations suggest that the carboxyl−peptide plane stacking interactions occurring to E305 but not D271 are important for the carboxyl group stabilization. For the protonated carboxyl group, the interaction energy can be as much as about −4 kcal/mol for parallel stacking and about −7 kcal/mol for T-shaped stacking. For the deprotonated carboxyl group, the largest interaction energies for parallel...
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...Nutrition test 1 Nutrition- study of nutrients in food and how body handles them: ingestion, digestion, absorption, metabolism, storage, excretion Diseases that have a strong correlation with diet: heart disease, malignant neoplasm, cerebrovascular diseases, DM, aspiration pneumonia Nutrient- substance obtained from food that is needed by the body for growth, maintenance, and/or repair Energy providing nutrients (provide calories): * Carbohydrate – 4 Kcal * Protein – 4 Kcal * Fat – 9 Kcal *alcohol – 7 Kcal Non energy providing nutrients (just as important): * Vitamins * Minerals * Water Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI): * Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)- 2 % margin of error, used as a goal for individual, intake sufficient to meet/exceed nutrient requirement for 98% of healthy ppl in a particular stage of life and gender group * Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)- highest amount of nutrient intake that will not pose a risk for adverse health effects, higher doses likely to cause toxicity, not available for every nutrient * Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) – level that indicates that the needs for 50% of those consuming that amount will be met; needed to set RDA * Adequate Intake (AI) – average amount a group of healthy ppl consume, not scientifically based, cannot provide EAR or RDA Dietary guidelines for Americans – based on ages 2 +, promote health and prevent chronic diseases. Done by the ISDA and USDHHS every 5 years 6 principles...
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...Biff Eddington Anthropology 4467 24 April 2011 What is life history theory? What is a primate life history pattern? What is the relationship between brain size and life history? Life history theory is a branch of biology that analyzes the selective forces that have managed the evolution of the schedule and duration of key events in an organism’s lifetime related to investments in growth, reproduction, and survivorship (Bogin, O’Rourke and Stinson 547). The reason that there are differences between major events in species related to growth, maintenance, and reproduction is because each species employs different evolutionary strategies to increase reproductive fitness. Each species has a unique life history; this is a pattern of how it distributes its finite energy between five different phases: Growth, development, raising its young, staying alive, and reproduction. The assumptions that underlie life history theory are not complicated, but are simple and impactful: There is limited time and there is limited energy, so this energy must be distributed among growth, reproduction, and survivorship recognizing the trade-offs that cannot be avoided. Primates have a unique life history pattern that is different from other orders of mammals. Relative to other mammals primates have: a longer gestation period, fewer offspring overall, more care given to each individual offspring, infants that are born developmentally advanced, a longer period of parental dependency, a strong...
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