Formalism The formalist approach to literature was developed at the beginning of the 20th century and remained the primary approach to literary study until the 1970s, when other literary theories began to gain popularity. As the name suggests, formalism is concerned primarily with form. Rather than INTERPRETING what a text means, the formalist ANALYZES how that that meaning is communicated. Formalists assert that each work is a separate entity—not dependent upon the author’s life, the culture in which it was created, or any other category to which it belongs. Three main areas of study: 1. FORM AND UNITY Cadence—how the words, phrases, and sentences sound. When a character or a narrator is speaking, the sound of what is being said, or how it is being said, can give clues as to who the character is and why he or she is in the work. Cadence also includes an examination of the formal and informal language patterns used by the author: • rhythm or meter, • rhyme, • sound devices like alliteration, onomatopoeia, etc. Repetition and recurrences—The author’s using the same word, phrase, or concept repeatedly is always a clue to its importance, as are instances of the same event happening more than once in a story. Formalists also note how the context of the motif or recurring event changes with each repetition, or how the motif or event itself changes. Structures—the story arc and character arcs are of great interest to formalists: • how and when is the conflict introduced? • what events constitute the “rising action”? • how does one plot event lead to the next? • how do various character arcs interact with one another and with the main plot? Relationships—By looking carefully at the connections among the people in the story, and among the various plotlines, one can understand the meaning of a work. The author puts each character into the story for a reason. The reader’s job is to find that reason. Likewise, every plotline has a purpose. 2. DICTION Denotation—Establishing the literal, dictionary definitions of the words used by the author is vital to understanding a text. If a reader does not know what the words mean, he or she can have no idea what the text is saying. Formalists will often consult a dictionary for the definitions even of words they think they know. They are especially careful to consult the dictionary —including the Oxford English Dictionary—to learn what a word meant at the time and in the place the author used it. Etymology—the study of a word’s origin and the evolution of its meaning and use are especially helpful when one is studying an old text in which the words might mean something quite different from what they mean today. A close study of words also helps a reader understand why the author uses a particular word rather than a synonym. Connotation—The formalist will also pay close attention to how the context of the piece may alter the meaning of a particular word or phrase. Ambiguity—Just as the formalist asserts that a lack of form is a form, an author’s intent might be to keep the meaning of a text obscure or to suggest multiple interpretations. The formalist will not simply note the fact of the ambiguity, however; the formalist will examine why the author may have chosen to be ambiguous and how he or she achieved the ambiguity.

Symbols—Again, the formalist will not be as concerned with the fact that the author is using symbolism, or even what the symbols mean. The formalist will be most concerned with how the symbol works and what it contributes to the overall effect and meaning of the work. Allusions—Although, strictly speaking, the formalist restricts his or her study to an examination of the text alone, the author’s intentional reference to works, persons, or events beyond the text is an important technique the formalist must take into account. There is a reason the author is leading his or her reader outside of the text. Studying the allusion is the only way to reveal that reason. 3. Incongruities Or Inconsistencies Irony and paradox—Formalist critics do not look for perfect unity. Instead, they look for tension and conflict. Irony and paradox are very important—irony being the use of a word or a statement that is the opposite of what is intended or expected, and paradox being the existence of two contradictory truths. This tension is what drives the work. Violation of convention—While the formalist will not be overly concerned with the classification of a will pay attention when an author intentionally violates a work’s classification: • obviously satiric elements in a self-professed tragedy • ironic or cynical observations in a Romance • etc. work, he or she

Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms • disruptions to the internal chronology of the work • shifts in narrative voice, point of view, etc. • atypical actions by one or more characters

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏Does the work exhibit the characteristics of a particular form, or does it have a unique form? ๏In what manner is this story told? Chronologically? Via flashbacks? ๏Is there closure in the narrative? Is the reader left guessing? ๏What is the point of view of the narrator? How does this point of view affect the story being told? ๏Is the author using any specific meter? What effect is achieved? ๏Is there any sound that keeps recurring throughout the work? What is it? What does it mean? How does it affect the work? ๏How does any rhythm in the words affect the work? ๏Where are examples of foreshadowing? ๏Are there any visual patterns in the work? What do they do for it? ๏What details of the setting seem to indicate meaning? (Time of day, season, physical location, weather?) ๏What would a diagram of the plot look like? ๏Are there any unfamiliar words? Look them up. ๏Are there any paradoxes in the work? Any ironies? What are they? What effect do they have on the tone or plot of the work?