...Genetic Diversity: Mutations, Sexual Reproduction, Migration & Population Size Genetic diversity is scientific term that is used to describe genetic differences. Genetic differences can be caused by a number of things. Mutations, Sexual reproduction, Migration and Population size all affect how diverse genetics can be. Mutation causes many variations in any known species; they introduce new genetic information into a population by modifying the alleles that are already present or ones that have been absent. All different alleles of a trait came from some kind of mutation in the past. Most people when thinking of a mutation expect some obvious type of deformity or cancer; however mutations can be either neutral or harmful. Mutations can have no effect at all as with neutral ones, or stop the gene from functioning completely hence causing a harmful one. Sexual reproduction creates new genetic combinations as each parent passes on 13 chromosomes to the child during fertilization. It’s the process of recombination of cells from both parents. Migration of individuals is an important factor in passing on or subtracting alleles from one local population to another. Whenever one human being leaves one population and enters another, it subtracts its genetic information from its own and joins the one it has entered. As persons continue to add to and leave the population the gene pool will continue to change. Population size is affected by all of the above. Simply put the smaller...
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...ASSIGNMENT 04 SC160 Basic Biology Farah Shirmohammadi AC1110896 09/18/2012 Discuss the issues related to genetic diversity; mutations, sexual reproduction, migration, and population size. Generally speaking, there are numerous issues related to genetic diversity which include mutations, sexual reproduction, migration, and population size. To begin with, mutations (any change in the DNA sequence of an organism) introduce new genetic information into a population by altering alleles (a form of a gene usually arising through mutation) that are already present. Occasionally, a mutation introduces a new allele into the gene pool of species. On the other hand, a mutation may introduce an allele that was deficient in a local population. Meanwhile, it is present in other populations of species. All the different alleles for a trait originated as a result of mutations sometime in the past and have been maintained within the gene pool of the species as they have been passed from generation to generation during reproduction. Many mutations are harmful, but very rarely one will occur that is valuable to the organism. If a mutation produces harmful allele, the allele will then remain uncommon in the population. For example, the “Anopheles” mosquito is responsible for transmitting malaria in many African counties. At some point in the past, mutations occurred in the DNA of these mosquitoes that made some individuals tolerant to the insecticide Pyrethrin, even before...
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...Generally speaking, there are numerous issues related to genetic diversity which include mutations, sexual reproduction, migration, and population size. To begin with, mutations (any change in the DNA sequence of an organism) introduce new genetic information into a population by altering alleles (a form of a gene usually arising through mutation) that are already present. Occasionally, a mutation introduces a new allele into the gene pool of species. On the other hand, a mutation may introduce an allele that was deficient in a local population. Meanwhile, it is present in other populations of species. All the different alleles for a trait originated as a result of mutations sometime in the past and have been maintained within the gene pool of the species as they have been passed from generation to generation during reproduction. Many mutations are harmful, but very rarely one will occur that is valuable to the organism. If a mutation produces harmful allele, the allele will then remain uncommon in the population. For example, the “Anopheles” mosquito is responsible for transmitting malaria in many African counties. At some point in the past, mutations occurred in the DNA of these mosquitoes that made some individuals tolerant to the insecticide Pyrethrin, even before the chemical had been used. These alleles remained very rare in these insect populations until Pyrethrin was used. Then these alleles became very valuable to the mosquitoes that carried them. The mosquitoes...
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...metastasis 2) Adenoma-Carcinoma sequence a. Majority of colon cancer arise from polyps (adenomas) b. Accumulation of genetic mutations / events resulting in uncontrolled growth (dysplasia) c. Over time results in carcinoma 1. APC mutation on chromosome 5 (Early adenoma) 2. K-ras mutation on chromosome 12 3. TGF β, SMAD4 mutation (Late adenoma) 4. P53 mutation on chromosome 17 (Carcinoma) 5. Metastasis d. Evidences 1. Foci of cancer are frequently seen within large polyps 2. Adenomatous (dysplastic) tissue is frequently seen adjacent to large cancers 3. Similar distribution of polyps and cancers within the colon 4. 10-15 year progression of polyp to cancer 5. Reduction of polyps causes reduction in subsequent incidence of cancer 3) Tumorgenesis a. Chromosomal instability 1. Gain of function – oncogenes 2. Loss of function – tumor suppressor genes (APC genes in FAP) b. Epigenetic alteration (microsatellite instability) i. Altered methylation or defective mismatch repair genes resulting in erroneous DNA synthesis Increased mutation rate and microsatellite instability ii. Exemplified by germline mutations causing HNPCC /Lynch syndrome which is characterized by premature and proximal location of colon cancer c. Common pathways 1. Mutations in Ras pathway, Wnt pathway, loss of p53 tumor suppressor, and SMAD2/4 mutations i. Decreased exit or increased entry into cell cycle, and anti-apoptotic signaling Increased cell growth, decreased...
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...are easily identified as sores that won’t go away or crusting patches that grow mostly on sun-exposed parts of the body such as the hands, neck, arms, and face, they can be treated with routine surgical procedures. Malignant melanoma is a potentially serious type of skin cancer due to uncontrolled growth of pigment cells, called melanocytes. Melanomas are most common in white skinned people, but rarely develop in those with dark skin. There are many factors that can affect who deals with this, including inherited genes and genetic defects (gene mutations) that are acquired due to environment factors, such as excessive sun exposure. Gene mutations that are passed down from parent to child can increase the risk of melanoma. Variation in skin, hair, and eye pigmentation between people of different ancestries is one of the most noticeable human characteristics; it is very well known and understood that human skin color, hair color, and eye color is mostly genetic. The MC1R gene provides instructions for making a protein called the melonocartin 1 receptor. This receptor plays an important role in normal pigmentation such as red hair, freckling, and sun sensitivity. This receptor is primarily located on the surface of our melanocytes, which are the specialized cells that produce the pigment called melanin. Differences in pigmentation between people are largely the result of differences in the amount and types of melanin produced, and packaging of melanin, and not the number of...
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...that specializes in biotechnology and genetic manipulation of organisms. This worldwide company is well known by farmers because it helps them increase food production and revenues. Nowadays 90% of the world’s GM seeds are sold by Monsanto. The company's innovation can solve a huge world’s problems such as hunger, because of intensive growth of population and lack of food and resources. That would feed all people worldwide but only thought the use of biotechnology. During the long history of Monsanto, there were different ethical, health issue and problems in each period of time. According to the company in the period 1901, when company was founded, the production of the artificial sweetener saccharine that was sold to Coca cola, this time Monsanto was well known as a Chemical company. They supplied the U.S. Army (Agent orange) which military sprayed over Vietnam and then it lead to genetic mutations in Vietnam event after 40 years. In 1981, they determined that the biotechnology would be the company new strategic focus. Then in 1994, they introduced their first products, and then sold soybean, cotton, and canola seeds. So other herbicides killed good plants that consider as not ethical at all. After production of insecticide DDC make a debate about safety in food, that it can be cause of some dangerous illness. Ethical issue was that it could lead to changes in natural ecosystem and distorted natural balance, but also provoke mutations after long time as it was in Vietnam...
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...DNA Mutations- The Consequences Introduction Deoxyribonucleic acid, which is more commonly known as DNA, is the hereditary material in almost all organisms. Its purpose is to store and retain the genetic information needed to be able to construct as well as maintain an organism such as a human being. Due to this people like to say that it is seen as the blueprint of life, as it contains the instructions for everything a part of you, such as eye color, height, hair type and several more. It truly controls the development of a living organism making each and every one unique in their own manner; it is also able to pass down information as well. Deoxyribonucleic acid is typically found in the cell nucleus, and due to this it is given the name nuclear DNA, it can also be located in the mitochondria and be called mitochondrial DNA. The main components of DNA are: a phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar and a nitrogenous base. The four nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, as well as cytosine. The order and sequences of these bases determine information to help build as well as maintain an organism or to allow for different information to be transmitted from one and another. Each of the bases is attached to sugar and phosphate molecules which are held together by phosphodiesterase bonds. Together they form what is called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands, these strands form something known as a double helix. By doing so it allows for more DNA...
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...DNA DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid is the very building block needed in the creation of life. It is composed of genetic instruction to map out the creation of an entire organism. DNA is well suited in the storage of biological information. Yet with all of this complex information there are certain chemicals or forms of energy that can damage or alter this special coding. In process of damaging or altering the coding of DNA the most dreaded situation of a cancerous cell can be formed. To start let’s look at the different kinds of radiation that may or may not effect DNA. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation Ionizing Radiation can change the way our body’s work and develop. Direct includes covalent linkage between nitrogenous bases, and creating structure like thymine dimmers. Indirect is when it interacts with water to create free radicals which can interact with a person’s DNA. It can cause single or double stranded breaks in the sugar- phosphate backbone. (Buttons, n.d.) Alpha Radiation is a process that needs to be swallowed, inhaled, and or absorbed into the blood stream. This can increase the risk of cancer also known as lung cancer. Radon is a silent but deadly killer. To determine if one has been affected by alpha particles testing would be completed with special equipment and gear to prevent those from any exposure. Beta Particles can be a helpful process of treatment to many, such as treating thyroid disorders, cancer, and Graves’ disease (hyperthyroidism). It also...
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...is, but with the increasing symptoms of Alzheimer’s setting in, their world is changing, and there is nothing that they can do about it. Yesterday is a blur, today is starting out in a foggy cloud. Even though, environmental factors could contribute to the onset of Alzheimer’s, 25% of all people aged 55 have family history of the disease, 50% of them will inherit the gene mutation. More studies need to be done when it comes to Alzheimer’s; a disease that is increasing in numbers and it is time to put more emphasis on this. With the number of cases rising at a fast rate, women need to stand up and take a stand and demand that more studies be performed as they are more at risk to get Alzheimer’s than Cancer; nearly two-thirds of those with Alzheimer’s are women. “Alzheimer’s disease was first identified more than 100 years ago but still relatively little is known and understood about the aetiology, pathogenesis, treatment management and prevention of the disease. Diagnosis is difficult, particularly in the early stages, and effective treatments remain elusive.” (Shan, 2013, para.) Alzheimer’s, a gene mutation that causes loss of memory, functions and eventually leads to death. Alzheimer’s played a role in over 500,000 deaths in 2010. According to The Shriver Report, 1 in 6 women will get the disease in comparison to 1 in 11 men. This disease is as real as cancer and needs to be given the same attention. Alzheimer’s is a highly...
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...early association of brain injury and hyperactivity that ADD traits are still assumed by many to reflect a brain disorder. Researchers made a giant leap in logic: Because brain injury can lead to hyperactivity, they believed that all hyperactivity was caused by brain injury. We now know this is not true. In fact, hyperactivity is also associated with giftedness, but obviously we cannot say that all hyperactive children are gifted any more than we can say all hyperactive children have suffered brain injury. More recent studies have shown that ADD is largely genetic. That is, it runs in families. This has lead some ADD researchers, notably Russell Barkley, to assume that our population is experiencing large scale random genetic mutations, a rather ridiculous notion for anyone familiar with population genetics. Anytime more than one percent of the population carries a gene, geneticists rule out random mutations under...
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...Background: Breast cancer cases in women are highly attributed to BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. The protein products of these genes suppress the development of cancer, in part by repairing damage in other genes. Women who inherit a nonfunctioning copy of either BRCA1 or BRCA2 therefore have a significantly elevated lifetime risk of breast cancer, especially at an early age. Identification of hereditary breast cancer susceptibility allows optimized medical management of an individual's increased risk of breast cancer. Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to highlights the arguments on doing predictive breast cancer genetic testing to investigate who is likely to carry a mutation, from ethical and legal perspectives of proponents and opponents...
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...SSM2 Introduction Eukaryotic cells contain hair-like projecting organelles, known as cilia and flagella, which are involved in many sensory and motile functions of the human body, thus any abnormalities in their characteristic 9+2 axonemal structure or their functioning can lead to many different disease processes. In my review I will look at the structure and functions of eukaryotic cilia in the human body and the ways in which mutated or abnormal gene expression can result in their malfunction and cause disease, looking specifically at Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia and the DNAH5 gene. Structure of cilia Cilia and flagella have very similar structures. Cilia are about 0.25 micrometers in diameter and 2-20 micrometers long (4) and flagella tend to be longer, 10-100micrometers and fewer per cell than cilia. They are both synthesized by and project from structures known as basal bodies which are a type of centriole located at the cells periphery, which anchors cilia to the cells body and cytoskeleton. They are also microtubule organizing centers which control the direction of the movement of the cilia (1). Both cilia and Flagella are made up of nine outer fused pairs of microtubule doublets (see figure 1) (3)(8), one of which is complete (A- tubule) and one incomplete (B-tubule), which join together via nexin protein links creating a circular network of microtubule doublets(3) (see figure 1) which surrounds two central single microtubules...
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... The other 80% will be taken from material covered earlier in the semester. DNA Replication, basics of semi-conservative replication, names and functions of the 5 enzymes required for replication, origins of replication, replication bubbles, differences between leading and trailing strand replication, details of the processes occurring at the replication fork, characteristics of DNA replication, replication problems at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, functions of telomers and teleomerases, chromosome packing, etc. Genes to Proteins, “One gene – one polypeptide chain, flow of genetic information - prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes, mRNA, details of Transcription – initiation, elongation and termination, processing of eukaryotic transcript into mRNA - 5’ cap and poly A tail and their functions, RNA splicing with intron excision by “spliceosomes”, Translation components, mRNA, the genetic code, how the code was deciphered, the code and protein synthesis, features of mRNA codons – starts, stops, be able to read the codon chart, tRNAs, Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase function, Ribosome structure and function, Stages of Translation - initiation, elongation and termination, polyribosomes, completing and targeting of functional proteins, chaperone proteins, post-translational modifications, protein targeting...
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...acute sun expose. Acute sun exposure, depending on the time spent in the sun and your skin type, can result in sunburn. Sunburn is an injury to your skin which can cause pain and/or blistering. Childhood sun exposure may also play an important part in the development of these cancers later in adult life, where children play outside for hours in the summer. (http://www.ccohs.ca) Family history has been researched, and research shows a small percentage of melanoma cases are caused by family factors. In families that many generations have multiple melanoma cases are at higher risk. The major hereditary melanoma gene is labeled, CDKN2A, and is found to be mutated. (http://www.cancer.net) There are two basic types of genetic mutations: acquired and germ line. Acquired mutations are the...
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...damaged cells can invade surrounding tissue, but with early detection and treatment, most people continue a normal life. Heritary Patterns Many cancers begin when one or more genes in a cell are mutated, creating an abnormal protein or no protein at all. The information provided by an abnormal protein is different from that of a normal protein, which can cause cells to multiply uncontrollably and become cancerous. A person may either be born with a genetic mutation in all of their cells or acquire a genetic mutation in a single cell during his or her lifetime. An acquired mutation is passed on to all cells that develop from that single cell (called a somatic mutation). Somatic mutations can sometimes be caused by environmental factors, such as cigarette smoke. Most breast cancers are considered sporadic, meaning that the damage to the genes occurs by chance after a person is born and there is no risk of passing on the gene to a person's children. Inherited breast cancers are less common (5% to 10%) and occur when gene mutations are passed within a family from one generation to the next. Types of Testing There exists many forms of testing. Some...
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