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Gentics

In: Other Topics

Submitted By clara18
Words 2634
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Kromosom DNA

Genetik - på godt og ondt
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Gensplejsning Kloning

1. del. Noget om genetik

Gener:
Alle levende organismer – mennesker, dyr, bakterier, planter, og svampe, rummer tusindvis af gener. Generne afgør en organismes mange forskellige træk, hos mennesker f.eks. hårfarve, øjenfarve, kropsbygning og tendens for sygdomme. Generne overføres fra slægtled til slægtled, og derfor kaldes gener også for ”arveegenskaber”. Mindre organismer, f.eks. gær og bakterier, består af en enkelt celle, men større organismer f.eks. planter og dyr, er komplekst af mange celler.
I hver eneste celle findes der DNA som ligger i organismens gener. Ud fra hvert gen kan cellen danne et bestemt protein. Proteiner er lange kæmpemolekyler, der er over 100.000 forskellige proteiner i kroppen. De udfører en række forskellige funktioner i cellen. Proteiner kan være byggesten i cellen, eller de kan medvirke i kemiske reaktioner, som tilsammen konstituere cellens stofskifte. Man kan godt sige, at generne er ”kongen” og proteinerne er ”tjenestefolkene”, der udfører kongens befalinger.
DNA kan godt sammenlignes som en genetisk kode, der indeholder opskriften på, hvordan cellerne konstituere proteiner. Man kan sammenligne DNA- strukturen med en vindeltrappe, hvor at hvert trin består af et basepar, som er en sammensætning af to baser, der findes i alt fire baser, som hedder A for ademin, C for cytosin, G for guamin og T for thymin. A og T er et par, og C og G er et par. Det er rækkefølgen af disse baser, der er koden, som bestemmer genets og dermed proteinernes træk.
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Et gen er et stykke af et kromosoms DNA- molekyle

Kromosomer:
Hvert menneske rummer ca. 100 billioner celler. Hver af disse celler, undtagen de røde blodlegemer der ingen cellekerne har, rummer det fulde menneskelige genom, i deres cellekernen er en fuldkommen genetisk manual der ligger til grund for hvert menneske. Denne information ligger i ca. 3 mia. nuklearbaser som er byggestenene i arveanlæggene der kaldes DNA.
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Et kromosom

Kromosom betyder "farvet legeme" De består af DNA- strenge, som er rullet op omkring særlige proteiner kaldet histoner
Inde i cellekernen ligger arvematerialet, DNA, der er en ubrudt dobbeltspiral på næsten to meter.
Dette materiale foldet sammen danner et kromosom. DNA-molekylet i et kromosom er bundet til et stort antal forskellige proteiner.
Hver cellekerne indeholder normalt 46 kromosomer, der danner 22 ensbyggede kromosompar, det sidste par er derimod forskelligt og består af kønskromosomerne. Hvert kromosompar består af et kromosom fra moren og et fra faren. Moderens ægcelle har altid en kromosomsammensætning 23X, mens farens sædcelle kan være enten 23X eller 23Y. Ved den normale befrugtning sker der en sammensmeltning af én ægcelle og én sædcelle. Hvert menneske er dermed unikt, og generne er en anelse forskellige for hver af os; de specificerer de fleste fysiske og mange af de adfærdsmæssige træk, der gør os til dem vi er.
Kromosomtal hos forskellige organismer
-Menneske 46 -Mus 40
-Hund 78 -Spolorm hos hest 2
-Kat 38 -Bananflue 8
-Hest 64 -Rødkløver 14
-Ko 60 -Tomat 24
-Svin 40 -Anemone 16
-Ræv 34 -Rug 14
-Rotte 42 Hvede 42
Alle organismer har et lige antal kromosomer, således at de kan deles i æg og sædceller. Selvom rug og rødkløver har lige mage kromosomer, er de ikke ens det afgørende er, hvilke DNA- koder der er på kromosomerne.

DNA:
Deoxyribonukleinsyre (forkortet DNA).er en nukleinsyre, der indeholder de genetiske instruktioner, der andvendes i udviklingen og bevarelsen af alle kendte levende organismer og nogle virus.
DNA- molekylet er bygget som en snoet trappe. Trappetrinene er dannet af fire stoffer, adenin, thymin, guanin og cytosin. Adenin sidder altid over for thymin, og guamin sidder altid over for cytosin.
DNA-streng kaldes også for et kromosom DNA er en dobbelt spiral i et kromosom, det er to meter per celle og det er det største molekyle i kroppen.
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Et DNA, hvor du også kan se base parrene
Aminosyre:
Protein er et vigtigt næringsstof. Når det nedbrydes i kroppen, frigøres der energi. Derudover leverer protein byggematerialer - aminosyrer - til alle kroppens celler. For mennesket er ni af aminosyrerne væsentlige - da vi ikke selv kan danne dem. De øvrige dannes ved den såkaldte anabolske proces. De væsentlige aminosyrer er Histidin, Isoleucin, Leucin, Lysin, Methionin, Phenylalanin, Threonin, Tryptophan og Valin.i et menneske findes der 20 forskellige aminosyrer. Alle de hundredtusinder af forskellige slags proteiner, der findes i vores krop, er sat sammen af disse 20 aminosyre. De fleste proteiner består af mange hundrede aminosyrer. Vores krop kan selv fremstille 12 af aminosyrene, mens vi skal have de øvrige 8 gennem maden. Disse 8 kaldes for de væsentlige aminosyrer.
Da protein - og dermed aminosyrer - er vigtige byggesten for kroppen, er det vigtigt at få nok aminosyrer i den daglige kost.
Det er selvfølgelig også vigtigt, at det er af den rigtige slags. De væsentlige aminosyrer skal være til stede i bestemte forhold, for at de kan anvendes til opbygning af cellebestanddele så som enzymer, muskelceller, hormoner, antistoffer mm. For langt den største del af befolkningen er det ikke et problem, da vi indtager mange forskellige typer næring hver dag.
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Aminosyre

RNA:
RNA er en forkortelse for ribonukleinsyre. RNA består, ligesom DNA, af kæder af nukleotider og har forskellige funktioner i cellen. tRNA (transport RNA) bruges til at transportere aminosyrer hen til ribosomerne under den naturlige proteinsyntese, mens mRNA (meddelelses RNA) er et midlertidigt budbringermolekyle, der bringer en gensekvens lagret i DNA ud til cellens cytoplasma (cellevæske), hvor sekvensen oversættes til protein. Ribosomerne er selv opbygget delvist af RNA, det såkaldte rRNA, eller ribosomalt RNA.

Ribosomer:
Ribosomet er et cellulært kompleks, som består dels af ribosomalt RNA (rRNA) dels af ribosomale proteiner (r-proteiner). Ribosomet er ansvarlig for "oversættelse" af den genetiske kode i mRNA til de polypeptidkæder, alle proteiner er opbygget af. mRNA er igen en kopi af et særligt gen i cellens genom.
Man kan betragte ribosomet som en fabrik, der bygger et protein ved hjælp af et sæt af instruktioner, der ligger i arveanlæggene. Ribosomer kan findes frit svævende i cellens cytoplasma (cellevæske) eller protoplasma(det levende materiale i en celle) i bakterier. I eukaryoter kan de ligeledes være bundet til det endoplasmatiske retikulum. Ribosomer er enzymer, og det har på det seneste vist sig at den enzymatiske funktion er styret af RNA-delen, ikke protein-delen. Dette adskiller ribosomet fra den største gruppe af enzymer i naturen, der udgøres af proteiner, og betyder at ribosomet er et RNA-enzym (også kaldet ribozym).
HUGO- projektet:
Vores gener har i daglig tale mange navne: arvemassen, genpuljen eller genomet . Genomet er således den samlede menneskelige arvemasse. Man regner med, at mennesket har mellem 30 og 40.000 forskellige gener, af hvilke vi i dag kender relativt få. På verdensplan finder der i disse år et gigantisk samarbejde sted med henblik på at kortlægge menneskets genom. I år 2000 kunne engelske og amerikanske forskere så præsentere det første udkast til en beskrivelse af den samlede menneskelige arvemasse.
Den organisation, der koordinerer disse projekter, kaldes samlet for HUGO (Human Genome Organisation). Arbejdet svarer i grundsætningen til at afkode en meget stor telefonbog og registrere, hvor vi har fundet numrene. Når vi nu kender telefonnumrene, skal vi bare finde ud af, hvem der gemmer sig bag nummeret, og hvad de laver.
Problemet er, at vi i dag kun kender funktionen og placeringen på nogle få tusinde gener. HUGO projektet betragtes af mange som det største stykke videnskabelige arbejde i verdenshistorien. Når vi kender alle genernes funktioner, vil vi have meget nemmere ved at forstå visse sygdommes opståen.
Herudover vil det ved nogle sygdomme være muligt at fremstille lægemidler med en specifik virkning, eller det vil være muligt at anvende genterapi til at modvirke visse sygdommes udvikling. Således vil de der beskæftiger sig med genteknologi og sygdomsbekæmpelse kunne drage stor nytte af HUGO projektet.
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HUGO- projektets logo
Mitose:
Mitose (Almindelig celledeling) er celledeling i f.eks. menneskekroppen (undtagen sædceller og æg), som resulterer i to datterceller med samme kromosomtal som modercellens, som også er ens. Mitose kaldes også for vækstdeling, da mitosen fører til vækst i vævet.
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Mitose

Mutationer:
Mutationer er tilfældige forandringer i generne. De kan forårsages af UV-stråling, radioaktiv stråling, røntgenstråling, temperaturchok og en lang række kemiske stoffer. Mutationerne ændrer kromosomerne, som bestemmer arvelige egenskaber. Og forårsager måske at en af baserne forsvinder eller bliver ændret.
Mutationer deles op i tre typer; den første er genommutation, der vil sige ændring i kromosomsættet og dermed genbestanden. Det der sker, er at der f.eks. er tab eller gevinst af enkelte kromosomer eller tab eller gevinst af et eller flere hele kromosomsæt, f.eks. polyploidi.
Den anden er kromosommutation, det vil sige at der sker en ændring af genernes antal, rækkefølge eller placering på kromosomerne og den tredje er mutation i mindre forstand. En celle f.eks. bliver udsat for UV-stråling. Det forårsager at en kort kode som f.eks. hedder A - T, G - T, bliver til, C - T, G - T og derved har man koden for et helt andet stof.
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En mutant frø
2. del: Noget om bioteknologi
Gensplejsning:
Gensplejsning er den metode hvor man ændrer arvematerialet i et enkelt individ.
Denne proces kan, lige som kloning kun foregå når udviklingen i individet er på et meget tidligt trin i udviklingen gensplejsning foregår ved at: 1. Man tager cellen der udgør det individ der skal gensplejses 2. Man tager så en donor, finder det gen ser styrer den ønskede effekt og klipper det ud fra donor cellen. 3. Dette gen sættes ind på tilsvarende plads(der er selvfølgelig blevet klippet et tilsvarende stykke ud fra objekt cellen)i donorcellen og lader cellen dele sig.
Gensplejsning er meget anvendeligt bl.a. i medicinal industrien hvor man bruger gensplejsede bakterie kulkurer til at fremstille medicin i stedet for giftstoffer. Det kan også bruges til at afskaffe arvelige sygdomme i en familie. Derudover kan det også bruges til at ændre på planter så de bliver mere modstandsdygtige, bedre og flottere.
En måde at bruge dette på er ved at implantere nye gener i en bakterie der formerer sig meget hurtigt, en af de bakterier der er mest anvendt er E coli der jo formerer sig så det står efter. Dette er noget det danske firma Novo nordisk benytter sig meget af i bl.a. insulin produktionen hvor man har taget det gen ved et menneske der styrer dannelsen af insulin i kroppen og har implanteret det i en bakterie der så danner insulin til sukkersyge mennesker.
Kloning:
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Kloning

Kloning er den proces hvormed man skaber flere genetisk ens individer Kloning har altid fundet sted i naturen. Man kender det fra enæggede tvillinger, ukønnet befrugtning (f.eks. bladlus). Man skelner mellem naturlig- og kunstig kloning. Den kunstige kloning foregår således

1. Man tager halvdelen af kernerne fra et æg på 16-32celle stadiet 2. man lægger dem tilside indtil 3. man har fundet 8-16 ubefrugtede æg (det kommer an på hvor mange celler der var i ægget, man bruger kun halvdelen af cellerne fra ægget på 16-32 celle stadiet)af samme art. Disse æg fjerner man kernen fra. 4. Derefter tager man kernerne fra trin 1. og kommer dem i cellerne fra trin 3. 5. Derefter anbringes æggene i hver deres rugemoder der er på samme trin i deres graviditet som æggene. 6. Når rugemødrene føder, er der en del genetisk ens unger.
Man kan også klone planter, ud fra en celle kan man i et reagensglas opfostre celler der kan blive til flere tusinde planter. Plantekloning kan også bruges til at forædle arter ved, med gensplejsning, at fjerne de dårlige egenskaber og så masseproducere den perfekte plante. På den måde ville man sideløbende få udryddet en del andre ukrudtsplanter og bakterier.
Det nyeste indenfor kloning.
Når cellerne bliver ældre, lukker de af for de funktioner de ikke har brug for. En celle med gener der styrer øjenfarve lukker f.eks. af for lever og hjerte funktioner. Det er derfor man ikke bare lige kan tage en celle fra hånden og derfra klone et nyt individ. Man må først finde en metode til at "åbne" for de aflukkede funktioner. Dette er rent faktisk lykkedes. Et skotsk får fik fjernet en levercelle som så fik åbnet de lukkede mekanismer. Cellen blev derpå implanteret i en ægcelle og blev sat ind i et ruge får. Efter et stykke tid blev det verdens mest berømte får og fik navnet Dolly. Dolly er en tro kopi af det får levercellen blev taget fra.
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Dolly

3. del. Etiske overvejelser

1: i år ”2010” blev genet for ordblindhed fundet. Det er dyrt med specialundervisning. Skal læger tilbyde fosterundersøgelser, så der kan foretages en abort?

I dag kan man få foretaget noget der hedder fosterdiagnostik, som er at man kan se om der er noget galt med ens barn, hvis det hænder at der er fundet en sygdom, skal man så have mulighed få at få fjernet barnet.

Jeg syntes det er en svær beslutning, men hvad nu hvis det var en selv der stod i situationen, ville man så have en anden synsvinkel?
Hvis jeg var ordblind, og mine forældre havde muligheden for at vælge fra, ville jeg være taknemlig for at de ikke havde valgt mig fra. Den ordblinde ville lære at leve med det og takle det, men det eneste lille problem er at man skal ligge lidt ekstra i tid og penge til side.
Jeg syntes at man altid skal have lov til at fore tage en abort, hvis barnet lider af store sygdomme, fordi det er meget hårdt for forældrene at opfostre et barn med store sygdomme, som Dawns syndrom, O.S.V. Men hvis man finder ordblindhed syntes jeg ikke man skulle vælge at fjerne barnet, med det er jo selvfølgelig op til forældrene, men man har vel overvejet inden man bliver gravid om man har penge nok til at opfostre et barn, inklusiv sygdomme.

2: skal det være lovligt at klone mennesker? Et forældrepar kan således få en klon af måske et mistet barn, eller mennesker med særlige gavnlige anlæg kan forbedre menneskeheden.

Hvis et forældrepar har mistet deres barn, og de ikke kan leve uden ham/hende. Skal forældreparret så have mulighed for at skabe en klon af deres mistede barn?
Og skal vi gøre menneskeheden bedre, ved at klone de ”klogeste” mennesker her på kloden.

Hvis et forældrepar har mistet deres barn syntes jeg ikke at man skal have lov til at klone det afdøde barn, prøv og tænk hvis du var barnet, og fandt ud af at du havde en dødelig sygdom og der ikke var langt igen, men det gjorde ikke så meget, for du blev bare klonet

|FORDELE VED KLONING AF BARN |ULEMPER VED KLONING AF BARN |
|Forælder for deres barn ”igen” |Det er ikke helt det samme |
| |Det er syndt for barnet |
| |Der ville komme for mange mennesker i verden |

Jeg syntes det ville være okay at klone et par stykker at de kloge, for at blive klogere på ting, men i det hele taget er jeg imod kloning, og syntes at naturen skal gå sin gang.
|FORDELE VED KLONING AF DE ”KLOGE” |ULEMPER VED KLONING AF DE ”KLOGE” |
|Man ville blive klogere på menneskeheden |Verden ville være alt for perfekt |
| |Alle ville være ens til sidst |

Konklusion:
Jeg er blevet klogere på nogle ting, som jeg var lidt usikker på. Det har været sjovt at skrive rapporten, og jeg syntes det er spændene at finde ud af hvordan vi fungere indvendig, man kommer til at tænke på en hel masse, end man gjorde før vi havde om emnet. Og alle de ting der foregår inde i kroppen, for at vi fungerer optimalt.
Kildehenvisninger
• www.noah.dk • www.uniguedanmark.dk • domino.eurofins.dk • wikipedia.org • www.netdokter.dk • Home6.intet.tele.dk • www.geocitis.com • Bogen • Hæfte • Egen viden

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Hpw to Make Students Innovative

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