Running head: GLOBAL BUSINESS CULTURAL ANALYSIS: TURKEY

Abstract A global business cultural analysis is a tool used in order for one to become more familiar with a culture, more attune to the implications that the culture has on the business conducted by the people group of the culture, and more aware of the attitudinal and behavioral implications a member of a different culture should expect when working with members of the people group. In exploring the varying cultural elements, one examines the role and perception of women, the role and influence of religion, and the role and perspective of time. The cultural elements have an impact on business that should be considered by a U.S. American seeking to conduct business with members of this people group.
Global Business Cultural Analysis: Turkey
Primary sources serve to provide a foundation for definitions when pursuing a research project. They are also beneficial for defining terms and establishing reasons behind why one might pursue a particular research topic. When beginning a global business cultural analysis, it is important to understand what is meant by the term culture. Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 9). The people group focus for this study is the members of the Republic of Turkey. Though the culture in Turkey differs from that of other people groups around the world, this study seeks to compare this culture with the culture of U.S. Americans. Cultural similarities and differences influence several aspects of interplay between members of different cultures, yet this project will focus on the affects these similarities and differences have on conducting business. The scope of this project seeks to study a few nuances of the Turkish culture, compare behaviors of the members of the Turkish culture with that of members of the U.S. American culture, and discuss the ways these cultural differences influence conducting business.
One may be asking why conducting a research project on the differences between two cultures is important to business. Deal and Kennedy write, “Every business – in fact every organization – has a culture… Whether weak or strong, culture has a powerful influence throughout an organization; it affects practically everything… Because of this impact, we think that culture also has a major effect on the success of the business” (Deal & Kennedy, 1982, p. 4). The culture of a country has a powerful affect on the members of the culture. It is extremely important for a business person to understand the nuances of a particular culture in order to build rapport, gain trust, relate well to the members of that culture, avoid unintentional offensive actions, successfully negotiate, and maintain a healthy relationship with vendors and customers. These reasons remind us about the importance of understanding the culture of a particular country, because that culture will have an influence on how one can successfully do business with individuals and companies within that culture.
The Culture of Turkey – The Major Elements and Dimensions of Culture in Turkey
When studying a different culture it can be helpful to begin with the history of that culture and the heroes revered by that culture because past behavior can often be telling of future behavior. “Heroes are pivotal figures in a strong culture… Heroes are symbolic figures whose deeds are out of the ordinary, but not too far out. They show – often dramatically – that the ideal of success lies within human capacity” (Deal & Kennedy, 1982, p. 37). Kemal Ataturk was the Turkish WW1 war hero who later became the father of modern day Turkey. In his fifteen years as president of the Republic of Turkey, he sought to westernize the country and restore a sense of pride in the Turkish people. “He modernized the country’s legal and educational systems and encouraged the adoption of a European way of life, with Turkish written in the Latin alphabet and with citizens adopting European-style names” (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2012). His leadership helped pave the way for international business to be conducted with Turkey, business that includes transactions with U.S. American companies. His leadership also helped to influence the roles of men and women, the role of Islam within the country, and role that time plays for members of this culture.
The Roles of Men and Women
Hofstede’s Research. Hofstede’s research of culture is widely known in the intercultural business field, and his work also serves as a primary source for providing a strong foundation for this research section. Hofstede’s wisdom and insight provide a framework for the discussion on the importance of looking into manhood and womanhood. His section on masculinity and femininity are especially helpful in shedding light on the different roles manhood and womanhood play in the workplace. He writes that “national cultural differences along the [masculinity/femininity] dimension affect the meaning of work in people’s lives” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 311). Whether one is considering operating a company in Turkey or conducting business with a company in Turkey, the dynamics of masculinity and femininity will have a bearing on how one might conduct business. With this in mind, how does the culture of Turkey view manhood and womanhood?
Equal Citizenship. In studying the culture of a country, it is helpful to study the dynamics of manhood and womanhood. Kemal Ataturk’s campaign for equal citizenship was years ahead of other countries. “One long-term effect of his actions, evident even now, is the degree to which modern Turkish democrats see the success of women's emancipation as central to their own self-identity as Western” (Schwartz, 1995). Schwartz also states that Ataturk’s work in “Granting women the right to vote, to run for elective office, and to serve in the army… lifted Turkish women above women in many European countries” (Schwartz, 1995). These efforts of reform are still a work in progress. Businesses in Turkey continue to be predominately operated by men. Women in Turkey are still not viewed as having the same competencies as men. Men are viewed as far more competent than women in making decisions and operating a business. For example, “Fathers and male siblings are generally doubtful about the competence and business knowledge of the daughters; therefore, daughters frequently face considerable challenges in coming to power” (Karataş-Özkan, Nicolopoulou, & Erdoğan, 2011).
The Religion of Turkey
Geertz’s Research. Not only is it important to research the particulars of a religion, but it is also important to have an understanding of how religion influences a particular culture. Geertz is a primary source for a discussion on religion as a cultural system. For some countries it may not be helpful to study the culture’s religions, but since Turkey is primarily Muslim, a study on how religion affects the culture can prove helpful for better understanding how members of a culture conduct business. Geertz writes, “The importance of religion lies in its capacity to serve, for an individual or for a group, as a source of general, yet distinctive, conceptions of the world, the self, and the relations between them” (Geertz, 1973, p. 123). The religion of Islam is part of the paradigm out of which the members of the Turkish culture view themselves and the world around them. Their worldview is shaped by Islam. Because Islam is such a prevalent part of the culture of Turkey, it is important for one to take into account the different aspects of being Muslim that influence who one is, what one believes, and how those beliefs affect one’s thinking and behavior. Understanding this concept encourages one to become more familiar with the religion of a particular culture to better understand how that religion influences business decisions.
Islam. Muhammad lived in the seventh century A.D. and founded the Muslim community. This focus on community as part of this religion promotes a collectivism mindset in the society instead of a an individualistically minded society. Islam reveres many of the Old Testament prophets like Adam, Enoch, Noah, Moses, and Abraham as prophets and even considers Jesus a prophet, but reveres Muhammad as the greatest prophet. Much of what Muslims believe can be found in the their holy book, the Qur’an which is viewed as divine communication from God (Tanri in Turkish) much like the Jewish view of the Torah or the Christian view of the Bible.
“Islam is much more than a formal religion: it is an integral way of life. In many ways it is a more determining factor in the experience of its followers than any other world religion. The Muslim (‘One who submits’) lives face to face with Allah at all times and will introduce no separation between his life and his religion, his politics and his faith. With its strong emphasis on brotherhood of men cooperating to fulfill the will of Allah, Islam has become one of the most influential religions in the world today” (Williams, 1962, p. 1)
For Muslims, Islam is a way of life, not just a religion. This belief affects every area of their lives, even what they drink. For a Muslim, wine (khamr) is considered filthy and, comparatively speaking, on the same level as urine. It is unlawful for a Muslim to drink wine. Though wine is not permitted, other alcoholic beverages are permissible to drink. “Liquor produced by means of honey, wheat, barley, or millet is lawful… although it be not boiled, provided it not be drunk in a wanton manner” (Williams, 1962, p. 130).
Islam also describes the worth of women in relation to men, how to handle negotiations one may suspect as unfavorable, as well as dietary restrictions. The religion of Islam views men as superior to women. The Qur’an 4:34 states that, “Men have authority over women because God has made the one superior to the other, and because they spend their wealth to maintain them.” Muslims are permitted by the Qur’an 8:50 to break agreements if they suspect treachery. “If you fear treachery from any of your allies, you may fairly retaliate by breaking off your treaty with them. God does not love the treacherous.” Muslims also abide by a strict dietary law prescribed by the Qur’an 5:3. Muslims are not permitted to eat “carrion, blood, and the flesh of swine.”
Though Islamic heritage runs deep within the country of Turkey and the majority of the country would claim Islam as a religion, Turkey has taken steps in the past to separate religion from government and reduce the influence of Islam on the country. Kemal Ataturk greatly reduced the extent of Islam on the Republic of Turkey. For example, “In opposing aspects of Islam... he campaigned for an end to traditional practices … The replacement of the sharia personal code with the Swiss Civil Code in 1926 outlawed polygamy and the Islamic practice of divorce by repudiation” (Schwartz, 1995). Though his efforts greatly reduced the extent of Islam on the Republic of Turkey, it should be noted that “Rather than declining and fading, religion has always remained omnipresent in Turkish society as a dominant ideology. It has always been the main point of reference by which almost all political parties relate themselves to Turkish voters” (Keyman, 2007, p. 223).
The Value of Time
Lewin’s Research. How does a culture value time? The response to this question can serve one in knowing when to set appointments, keep appointments, expect members of the culture to keep appointments, anticipate the duration of appointments, and can also help one to know what to expect during an appointment. Lewin is another primary source who discusses how time relates to morale. Lewin writes, “Actions, emotions, and certainly the morale of an individual at any instant depend upon his total time perspective” (Lewin, 1997, p. 80). Lewin serves to provide a foundation for addressing the importance of exploring the perspective of time when researching a particular culture. One’s perspective of time can affect one’s business conduct and decisions. Understanding this justifies the purpose for pursuing time as a cultural category to research.
Islam and Time. Two of the most prominent influences that Islam has on time are related to the ritual prayer (salat) times that occur five times a day and Ramazan (or Ramadan in other Muslim countries). “The five prayers are obligatory for every Muslim who has reached puberty and has the use of reason, except women who are in their courses or recovering from childbirth” (Williams, 1962, p. 99). Williams writes that the five prayer times are the noon-prayer (zuhr), afternoon prayer (‘ashr or al-wusta), evening prayer (maghrib), night-prayer (isha), and dawn-prayer. Ramazan is another event where Islam influences the culture of Turkey. During the thirty days of Ramazan a Muslim must refrain from eating or drinking from dawn until the sun has fully set. At the end of Ramazan a three day feast is held (Sheker Bayram). Muslims also celebrate the feast of sacrifice (Kurban Bayram), which is an important four day holiday to celebrate Abraham almost sacrificing his son.
Business as Usual - How the Culture of Turkey Influences Locals Conducting Business
Business Women
Women in the Workplace. What does the business culture look like for women in modern day Turkey? Social policy reform has continued to affect the culture of Turkey. “During the last decade, there has been an ongoing process of social policy reform in Turkey… These reform initiatives reflect a change in the perception of women's position in society” (Kilic, 2008). Despite Ataturk’s work, until this recent social reform, women were regarded “within a male-breadwinner family model on which women were dependent for their livelihood, deriving their entitlements mostly as daughters and wives. Women workers were encouraged to go back home through certain monetary incentives” (Kilic, 2008). As discussed above, much of this perspective among the members of this culture has its roots in the Islamic worldview that men are superior in worth to women. Reform in this area, though moving, is moving at very slow pace.
Women in the Family Business. Women receive many benefits by participating in the family business, but difficulties also arise due to their roles. By better understanding these roles and relationships, one can become more aware of what is acceptable or not when conducting business in Turkey. Cultures each have different ways that men and women interact with one another. Cultures also have differing roles for men and women. These roles and these interactions are evident in the workplace and have implications on how work is accomplished and who accomplishes what responsibilities. Women are still involved in the family business, but often are perceived as “invisible.” “The notion of invisible women’s roles is related to the argument that in business life women are generally not given consideration by people within and outside the family company; women are viewed differently to the male family members” (Karataş-Özkan, et al., 2011). This is not only a concern for wives, but also for daughters of business owners. “A daughter, for example, faces the invisibility problem when her father looks for a successor to the family business” (Karataş-Özkan, et al., 2011).
Islam at Work
Islamic Business Customs. Because Islam is the backdrop for the traditional religious values of Turkey, it is important to understand how this religion affects the business in this country.
“The institutional separation of religious and political domains has been a generally accepted norm in Turkey. However, this should not lead us to ignore the crucial fact that the state’s top-down act of creating a secular national identity by initiating strict political and institutional regulatory mechanisms on religious communities has always been challenged by Islam and its powerful symbolic and cultural role in the constitution of societal relations and social identity formations of Turkish people” (Keyman, 2007, p. 216).
One of the results of the community focus of Islam is that the Republic of Turkey places a high priority on collectivism in contrast to a U.S. American being more individualistic. With a collectivism view also comes the mindset of deferring to one’s elders for making business decisions. A commitment to Islam and community also provokes a sense of pride in a Turk’s endeavors. Turks will work extremely hard at their business and will also be extremely involved in the overall operation of the business.
Islamic Trust Building. Trust relationships seem to drive business in Turkey. In referring to a collectivist society, Hofstede writes that “a relationship of trust should be established between two parties before they can do any business. Through this relationship, both parties adopt the other into their in-groups, and from that moment onward both are entitled to preferential treatment” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 239). It is important to understand these implications that are influenced by Islam for one to become more adept at building trust.
“The formation of Turkish modernity has radically changed as Islamic identity claims become more… economically grounded, as Islam has begun to function as ‘a powerful network based upon trust relations’ among small and medium economic enterprises, establishing a very powerful economic actor, that is, the Independent Business and Industrialist Organization (the MUSIAD), which aims to promote a morally loaded economic modernization, founded upon a combination of free market and traditional religious values” (Keyman, 2007, p. 216).
Trust is an extremely important element for conducting business, especially in Turkey. One should be very cautious of breaking the trust of a Turkish business person. As noted above it is perfectly acceptable for a Muslim to break a treaty if he or she feels betrayed. Maintaining a business relationship grounded in trust is imperative for conducting business in the Republic of Turkey. The importance of trust also holds true for employees. “For Turkish managers, it is important that subordinates should be loyal and comply with their directions” (Eroglu & Piçak, 2011).
Business and Good Timing
Short-time orientation. Hofstede’s model of time orientation also applies to the culture of Turkey. “Turkish entrepreneurs could be characterized as short-time oriented entrepreneurs. They simply lack the strategic orientation and long-term vision, possibly because of having relatively less entrepreneurship education compared to Western entrepreneurs” (Eroglu & Piçak, 2011). One of the implications of this short-time orientation is that because a high importance is placed on trust, one cannot expect a high level of risk when working with Turks. Understanding this difference from American business culture can be very enlightening when negotiating long term contracts in Turkey.
Turkish Calendar. In studying the Turkish value of time, one should consider looking at the Turkish calendar. The Turkish calendar reveals how Islam influences the Turkish concept of time. The Saatli Maarif Takvimi calendar brings together the Islamic calendar, the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian calendar (Yakyn, 2005). The calendar also serves as an almanac providing direction for when to plant and harvest. The calendar also depicts the Islamic prayer times, which are important for a business person to be aware of and sensitive to. This calendar depicts the importance that members of the Turkish culture place on the religion of Islam, as well as the culture’s influence by the western culture. This understanding can serve one in knowing when not to interrupt or offend a Turkish business partner who may practice the daily Islamic prayers.
A United States Comparison - Comparing Culture and Business
Women in the Workplace – A Comparison
The American Businesswoman. According to research conducted by American Express that utilized information obtained from the United States Census Bureau, “Between 1997 and 2012… the number of women-owned firms increased by 54 percent, a rate 1.5 times the national average. The number of women-owned companies has risen by 200,000 within the past year” (American express research, 2012). The study goes on to report that “Women-owned firms are exceeding overall sector growth rates in seven of the 13 most populous industries. These industries include: wholesale trade, finance and insurance, other services, real estate, health care and social assistance, construction and arts/entertainment/recreation.”
One U.S. American business woman summarized her experience working in Turkey by stating that,
“It is not easy for Turkish men to accept a woman boss, be she foreign or not, although I think this also depends both on the age of the woman and the age of the man. The older the woman is, the easier it is, and the younger the man, the easier. The new generation of Turks is more comfortable than their fathers with the idea of working for a woman, since age gives a certain status to people here, regardless of gender” (Taylor & Napier, 2001).
She went on to say that working in bigger cities like Istanbul and Ankara also seemed to be more accepting of women in business than the smaller villages. Another cultural difference in working in Turkey is the level of assertiveness or aggression a business woman would use in relationship to a subordinate. She may be more polite when addressing employees when working in the U.S.; however, “there is a tradition [in Turkey] that the relationship between boss and subordinate is very unequal, and the subordinate only performs under duress or because of personal loyalty to the boss or to further his own career advancement” (Taylor & Napier, 2001).
The Turkish Businesswoman. Because the Republic of Turkey is primarily a Muslim country, most of the business contacts will be men. “Because women have only recently taken an active role in business life, the number of female entrepreneurs is low… They have problems stemming from the community’s view of women’s place in society” (Ufuk & Özgen, 2001). According to a study conducted in 2008 by the European Commission, seventy percent of women were excluded from the workforce in the Republic of Turkey (Landig, 2011). This mindset is changing in light of Turkey’s desire to become part of the European Union, but the presence of businesswomen in Turkey is quite sparse. Landig (2011) goes on to state that, “Turkey's gender equality reforms are in part due to its efforts to meet requirements for EU membership.” As social reform continues in the Republic of Turkey motivated by the desire to participate in the European Union, one should expect to see more and more women entrepreneurs.
Religion in the Workplace – A Comparison
Protestant Work Ethic. Capitalism provides the economic underpinnings for U.S. American business. Max Weber is credited with correlating the success of capitalism with the protestant work ethic, which is one of the most popularly known work ethics (Smith & Smith, 2011). The protestant work ethic is the belief that a person’s worth and character are best displayed by that person’s example of working hard. Accompanying this view is the belief about the importance that education plays on the success of an economy. Becker and Woessmann (2009) write that “the Protestant lead in literacy is large enough to account for practically the entire Protestant lead in economic outcomes.” They argue that literacy encouraged by the Protestant reformation (specifically Martin Luther’s role in encouraging education in order for Germans to be able to read and understand the Bible for themselves) was also a catalyst for the success of capitalism.
Islamic and Western Values. Though the educational approach may be different in how literacy is encouraged, the importance of literacy in Turkey serves as another example of similarities between the U.S. American culture and the culture of Turkey. Just as the Protestant work ethic encourages literacy, so does the religion of Islam. “Since knowledge is obtained from mainly reading, Islam stresses the importance of reading so that its followers can improve society, and since ignorance [kejahilan] is considered a sin it is compulsory that knowledge be acquired” (Eakle & Garber, 2004). Kemal Ataturk’s educational reform sought to improve the education and literacy of Turkey. This coupled with the hard work of Turkish business owners provides a similar approach to the U.S. American ethical pursuits of business.
Time in the Workplace – A Comparison
Holiday Comparison. Most U.S. Americans do not follow the Islam calendar for holidays. U.S. Americans celebrate New Year’s Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Days, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. In addition to Islamic holidays Sheker Bayram and Kurban Bayram, Turkey also recognizes November 10th as a holiday set aside for them to remember the death of Kemal Ataturk. Turks may consider it an egregious insult if one does not observe a moment of silence at 9:05 that morning – the time of Ataturk’s death. Similar to when school vacation is going on in the United States, extended vacations are often taken during the months of June – August by Turkish business people (Morrison, Conaway & Borden, 1994, p. 392).
A Typical Day. Most U.S. Americans do not follow the prayer rituals established by Islam. Because of the westernization of Turkey the hours of business are relatively similar to the hours of business in the United States. “Although Friday is the Muslim holy day, business is still conducted on that day. Sunday is the government-mandated ‘day of rest’” (Morrison, et al., 1994, p. 392).
A United States Approach - Implications for US Businesses Conducting Business in Turkey
Cultural Courtesy
The Implications of the Westernization of Turkey. Turkey is continuing the process of becoming more westernized that began at the republic’s inception under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk. There exists a Turkey-centric goal or purpose for becoming more westernized. “At the core of Turkey-centric westernism lies the idea that coping with the challenges of the ongoing globalization process requires Turkey to continue its liberal democratic transformation process at home and help develop a friendly strategic environment in its region.” (Oguzlu, 2011). An example of this as stated in the previous section is the observance of Sunday as the day of rest instead of Friday, the traditional Muslim holy day. The desire for Turkey to become more westernized has implications on business. The government of Turkey desires businesses to be attracted to Turkey as well as the opportunity for Turkish businesses to have the benefit of other markets. This pattern can also be seen in their vacation patterns and hours of operation schedules that are similar to those of westernized cultures.
Islam’s Wide-reaching Influence. Because of the communal nature of Islam, if one can successfully build and maintain trust with Muslims in the Turkish culture, one may have the opportunity for that trust to transfer to other Muslim cultures where one desires to grow a business.
Negotiating in Turkey
Effective Negotiating. The key to effective negotiating in Turkey is to develop a deep trust relationship with the decision makers of the company you are using. As a collectivist society, the oldest business partner is more than likely the most respected and prominent decision maker. Taking time to build a relationship through talking about and asking questions about family and especially of a client’s son is a great way to begin uncertainty reduction and gain the trust of a Turkish client. Not only was education important to Kemal Ataturk in his reform, one’s educational achievements as a vendor or business partner could also establish rapport with a Turkish client. An American business woman working in Turkey commented that, “Because I was educated in the U.S. at a university well known in Turkey, and even more because I had been sent by a well-known firm to Turkey, there was a respect for my expertise” (Taylor & Napier, 2001).
Questionable Negotiation Tactics. One of the purposes for the project is to understand the differing ways that United States businesses pursue negotiations from how Turkish businesses pursue negotiations. Individualism-collectivism dimensions affect one’s view of negotiation. In Turkey it is acceptable for someone acting in good faith to pursue what a U.S. American might consider unethical business practices like overpromising and misrepresenting a product or a service. A study was done that “provides hints to managers negotiating in Turkey of the extent to which Turkish managers would employ ethically questionable negotiation tactics.” (Erkuş & Banai, 2011). Business persons recognizing this can hopefully avoid the pitfalls of failed negotiations or at least detect when unethical negotiations are taking place. Because studies on Turkey in this area are limited, one would do well to consider this potentially difficult situation.
Planning
Scheduling a trip. If scheduling a trip to Turkey one should take note of the Muslim holidays of Ramazan and Kurban Bayram. One might be well served by avoiding business negotiations during Ramazan as hungry business persons are generally more irritable (Ramazan kafasi) and less agreeable. Because Kurban Bayram is one of the most important holidays, one should be sensitive to this holiday and schedule an appointment for another time.
Entertaining etiquette. Because of the influence of Islam, one should avoid serving pork products to someone from Turkey. As mentioned above the Quran forbids the eating of anything that comes from a pig. Though not as offensive in Turkey as pork products and because Turkey is secularized in their convictions about Islam, one should avoid giving wine as a gift or avoid giving alcohol altogether if one is not aware of the abstinence preferences of the recipient.
Conclusion
Learning about the culture of Turkey can better position one seeking to conduct business with members of this people group. Understanding the position of women in the culture, how the religion of Islam influences the culture, and how the members of this culture views time are vital pieces of knowledge crucial for pursuing business arrangements in Turkey. By becoming more aware of the nuances of another culture, one also becomes more aware of the affect that one’s own culture has on one’s world view and decisions. Thankfully, as a believer, one has God’s Word as a source that transcends culture to instruct and guide one in walking circumspectly in the world. This same believer eagerly awaits the glorified state where for eternity, he is no longer a sojourner, his country is Heaven, and he is in the presence of Jesus his King.

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