...DURKHEIM to the research methodology used in social sciences” INTRODUCTION The paper mainly concerns the contributions of MARX, WEBER and DURKHEIM to the methodology in social sciences. The various methodologies in social sciences establish a connection with the societal implications which have a large impact over the society and its normative effects. Referring to the contributions by the following sociologists, all have a different and influential impact on the factors of society. The methodology of various sociologists reflects their attitude towards the society and its various customs and traditions. The following mentioned are the various methodologies adopted by sociologists in the field of social sciences. Marxist sociology emerged around late 19th/early 20th century, influenced by the thought of Karl Marx. Marx is seen as one of the most influential thinkers in early sociology, alongside thinkers such as Max Weber and Émile Durkheim. KARL MARX The theory propounded by Karl Marx is Marxism; in a nutshell it is the theory and practice of working-class emancipation. Marxism is also a method of looking at the world. One of the most important foundations of Marx's method was dialectical thought. Marx relied a lot on historical materialism and dialecticism to propound his theories in social science. Marx relied heavily on these two methods for social science research. Historical materialism starts from the realization...
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...historically, academics, such as Henry James, formed the foundation of modernism through deterministic theories on the validity of science as distinguishing factor on the development of higher human civilizations. However, the paradigm of determinism and scientific inquiry has been co-opted by the subjective sciences, such as social and cultural studies, which deny these terms as being too simplistic a narrative to define the development of human progress by science in and of itself. The major pioneer of post-modernist theory, Jean-Franc Lyotard (1984), defines the “nostalgia” of scientific realism as a barrier to the study of...
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...usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present.[3][5][6][7] The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history.[8][9] Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory. Amongst scholars, the 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus is considered to be the "father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, forms the foundations for the modern study of history. Their influence, along with other historical traditions in other parts of their world, have spawned many different interpretations of the nature of history which has evolved over the centuries and are continuing to change. The modern study of history has many different fields including those that focus...
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...for gaining an understanding of society today than those used by positivists and interpretivists. To what extent do sociological arguments support this view of social research (33 Marks?) Positivism is a philosophy of science and a theory of methodology which suggests that social behaviour should be researched according to the principles of natural science, whereas interpretivism is an alternative to the positivist scientific tradition, interpretivists argue society cannot be studied in the same way as objects in natural interactions. However alternative theories of methodologies e.g.: Realism, Feminism, social constructionism and methodological cosmopolitanism are said to be better useful ways for gaining an understanding of society today then positivists and interpretivists. Positivism is a philosophy of science and a theory of methodology which suggests that social behaviour should be researched according to the principles of natural science. For example Comte a positivists who first used the word ‘sociology’, argued that sociology should be based on the methodology of the natural sciences. As this would result in positive science society and would reveal invariable laws and could use the research to control and improve society. Positivists assumptions on the subject matter is that people are the subjects of social forces beyond their control, for example Durkheim (1874) tried to establish sociology as a distinct discipline with his famous study Le Suicide (using a positivists...
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...Philosophy of Science (All Science, not just social science) During the time of the ancient Greeks—that is, Socrates and Plato, but before them and after them as well, the study of “philosophy” (Greek for “love of wisdom”) began. At that time, philosophy included both the natural and physical sciences as well what we know as philosophy today. The development of philosophy created a tension between philosophy, science, and religion. Remember that Socrates was put to death for allegedly questioning the existence of the official state-worshiped gods. This tension between philosophy, science and religion continued through the 1400’s and 1500’s when the European “Enlightenment” emphasized the concept that both “rational thought” and “science” was separate from religion. Today, they are still generally in tension. Whether these methods of gaining knowledge are consistent or not is constantly debated among scientists, theologians, and philosophers. Science=observation of the physical universe which includes (beginning in the late 1800’s) the study of human behavior using our five senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell); Religion=the study of the “divine” (i.e., god, however a person conceives of that notion, and it’s implications) Philosophy=the study of questions unanswerable by science through the use of “reason” (rational thought) alone. Thus, there are 4 different philosophical views on how humans can obtain knowledge: 1. mysticism/divine revelation—a...
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...HubPages exploresign injoin now flag Explore »Education and Science (65,836) »Psychology and Psychiatry (3,569) by shazwellyn 1,094 Followers Psychology 101, What Are The Historical Perspectives In Psychology? In this Psychology 101 article, we ask what are the historical perspectives in psychology? Now, this question provokes a thesis on its own, but here we evaluate specific times of extraordinary turning points leading to where we are today. We are all psychologists in our own right. We have the innate ability to draw conclusions by watching the behaviours of others. So, where, whom and what legitimizes psychology as a science and how did we arrive there? It is through history, that we have built and drawn from our own evaluations as a species. So, what is psychology? Psychology Definition As this is a psychology 101 based article, as always, we will start by providing a ‘working definition’ of psychology as a term: ‘Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour of humans and animals.’ Psychologists concentrate on what is observable and measurable in a person’s behaviour. This includes the biological processes in the body, although, the mind is central to the subject. ψ - This is the Greek letter pronounced as 'Sigh' and spelled as 'Psi'. It is now used as the International symbol of Psychology. Psychologists think it is important to be scientific in their study. This is to avoid confused thinking. What Is Psychology...
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...1970’s was a time where there was an emergence of new research directions around the organizational and social aspects of accounting. During this time the accountancy profession was rapidly growing and moving into many new areas, there was a new standard-setting process, greater use of accounting controls in both private and public-sector enterprises, new forms of social accounting, intervention by government in the inflation accounting debate and calls on accounting to change in diverse directions. All of these rapid changes were forcing accounting academics to analysis the changing world of accounting more closely. (p454 30 years of historical accounting research) One of the changes in accounting analysis was a move towards accounting history. Hopwood (1976)called for historical studies in terms that would later be labelled as “traditional”, despite the label it would receive in the future, it still represented an awareness that historical studies would soon be an important source of understanding of the roles of accounting in organizations and society (reference 30 years of historical accounting research). Historical research was slow to emerge, as was highlighted in the Accounting, Organizations and Society journal where between 1976 and 1985 only 13 historical papers were published. Historical research came to the fore during the period from 1986 and 1990 where 22 historical papers were published in the journal Accounting, Organizations and Society, this period was also the...
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...Dr Mariusz Czepczyński Katedra Geografii Ekonomicznej Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego Economic Geography Department Human Geography Research methodologies in human geography Discursive studies Discursive approaches – a social framework of intelligibility within which all practices are communicated, negotiated or challenged (Michel Foucault, 1926-1984) In social sciences - an institutionalised way of thinking, a social boundary defining what can be said about a specific topic Power relations are immanent to discourses, the discourse is conceived as the ideological superstructure. ‘Polymorphic tactics’ of discourses: specific discourses are not tied to the subject, rather the subject is a social construction of the discourse. Search for objectivity/ legitimating Plato’s and Socrates debates: what is real and how do we know what we infer about the real is true? Empirical evidence based upon observations and experimentation in the physical world is conducive to the verification of scientific judgments, and adherence to the rules of deduction and the process of inductive reasoning implements the determination of the validity and soundness of scientific arguments and conclusions. Whether independent propositions exist as do the objects of objectivism, or as the timeless truths concerning an object once it has become the intended object of a mental act, their reason for being would appear to be essential only to the process of discovery. Taking an objective...
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...SOCIOLOGY -It is a social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity -Analysis of a social institution or societal segment as a self-contained entity or in relation to society as a whole. -he study of sociology aims at analyzing the patterns of human behavior, deriving their causes and speculating the future of the behavioral patterns in society. 2.a.Relation between Sociology and History: Both social sciences are now a days coming nearer to each other. Some time ago history was considered as science of some dates, places and struggles.But now people have realizes that why the particular event in history occurred? What was form of the same? In short history is another social science which is related to irect society and sociology. History primarily deals with past events and how they affected society eg how the Ino-Pak partition ,compel Sindhu(Hindu word it self has originated from Sindhu_)to prove themselves laborious, on the other end will be concerned with how people intereacted, how culture was affected etc during the present and before the partition . 1.Sociology takes help from history in mater of present studies.By comparing between occurring past and present events, one can estimate the factors responsible for occurring that event. 2.Sociology is obvious in history in that the social interactions of individuals have effected...
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...in respectively American, British and French anthropological thinking. German tradition remains: diffusionism → 4ff no shared programme, significant methodological & theoretical differences → evolutionism had failed, but evolutionists (Morgan, Tylor) established basic parameters of anthropological discipline Boas and historical particularism: • Influence from German diffusionism (critical to evolutionism) • Development of theory = sufficient empirical grounding → collect and systematize detailed data on particular cultures → theoretical generalisations (but with great care) • Four-field-approach: linguistics, physical anthropology, archaeology, cultural anthropology (↔ France, Britain: not specialized, but generalistic approach) • Field work: Inuit, Kwakiutl, NW coast of America, short, repeated visits, teamwork • CULTURAL anthropology (USA): culture = everything mankind has created, including society (material phenomena, social conditions, symbolic meaning) – (cfr. definition Tylor) (↔ Britain: SOCIAL anthropology: sociologically (social structure, norms, statuses, social...
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...QUESTION: THE METHODS USED BY INSTITUTIONALISM SOCIAL AND POLITICAL THEORY Institutionalism put much emphasis on formal legal and political arrangements of the society. Unlike normative political theory which is more theoretical, institutionalism is more empirical in nature. Adrian Leftwich in his book “What is Politics”, argues that normative political theory and institutionalism are the two pillars of traditional political science. But others, especially behavioralists have criticized Leftwich by arguing that the concept of political science is too broad, and that there is more to political science than just normative political theory and institutionalism. With regards to the subject matter of political science in the view of the institutionalists, political science came into existence as an independent field of study when it departed from other fields like philosophy, sociology and even political economy. These include the formal legal and political arrangements of society called the state. Three methods are peculiar to institutionalism, they are the descriptive-inductive method, the formal-legal method and the historical-comparative method. Firstly, the descriptive-inductive method is used by the institutionalists in political science. The word descriptive literally means to describe, but in the context of institutionalism, the word descriptive means using the technique of the historian to investigate specific events, institutions and so on. And inductive in...
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...The relation between sociology and anthropology is widely recognized today. In fact, anthropologist Kroeber pointed out that the two- sciences are twin sisters. Robert Redfied writes that viewing the whole United States, one say that the relations between sociology and anthropology are closer than those between anthropology and political science, which is partly due to greater similarity in ways of work. Anthropology is a general science like sociology. 'The word anthropology' is derived from two Greek words, 'anthropos' and 'logos' meaning the study of man. More precisely, it is defined by Kroeber as the science of man and his works and behavior. Anthropology is concerned not with particular man but with man in-group with races and peoples and their happenings and doings. There is a great deal of similarities between anthropology and sociology. A number of subjects include society, culture, family religion, social stratification, etc. For this reason an eminent anthropologist like A.L. Kroeber regards "Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters" Etymologically, anthropology means the study of the science of man. It traces the development of human race, and studies, in particular, the primitive preliterate people and their culture. Anthropologists are sure that anthropology is deeply concerned with the physical and cultural development of human beings from the time of their origin to this day. There cannot be two opinions about the fact that the field of its investigation is...
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...The first lecture was about Science and Technology and he started off by saying that science came from society for the needs of the people meaning that everything Science and Technology invented or discovered is for the needs of society. Science and Technology both have their similarities and differences. One similarity of Science and Technology is that they were both created for knowledge while one difference would be in their usage. Science is for the understanding of the natural world and technology is the action of saving the natural world. Society however is the main predecessor of both science and technology because it is society that controls and guides the forms of science and technology. To conclude, Science and Technology are not necessarily related in the sense that they can be independent from one another and develop separately. Society is the determining factor for their possible connections and science and technology have become so intertwined that they have become related. The next lecture was on The Biography of Science and the video “The Story of Science – What is Out There?” was used as reference. This was basically about how early scientists or philosophers used their technology or invented technology to expand science and help society. The documentary mainly focused on philosophers being curious about what is outside the earth and its atmosphere and building telescopes to expand the vision of the naked eye. They studied the planets and how the planets revolved...
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...Forecasting Methods Genius forecasting - This method is based on a combination of intuition, insight, and luck. Psychics and crystal ball readers are the most extreme case of genius forecasting. Their forecasts are based exclusively on intuition. Science fiction writers have sometimes described new technologies with uncanny accuracy. There are many examples where men and women have been remarkable successful at predicting the future. There are also many examples of wrong forecasts. The weakness in genius forecasting is that its impossible to recognize a good forecast until the forecast has come to pass. Some psychic individuals are capable of producing consistently accurate forecasts. Mainstream science generally ignores this fact because the implications are simply to difficult to accept. Our current understanding of reality is not adequate to explain this phenomena. Trend extrapolation - These methods examine trends and cycles in historical data, and then use mathematical techniques to extrapolate to the future. The assumption of all these techniques is that the forces responsible for creating the past, will continue to operate in the future. This is often a valid assumption when forecasting short term horizons, but it falls short when creating medium and long term forecasts. The further out we attempt to forecast, the less certain we become of the forecast. The stability of the environment is the key factor in determining whether trend extrapolation is an appropriate forecasting...
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...main schools of thought regarding the scope of sociology: the specialistic or formalistic school and the synthetic school. The Specialistic/Formalistic School This school of thought was led by the German sociologist George Simmel. The other main advocates of this school were Vierkandt, Max Weber, Small, Von Wiese and Tonnies. They were of the opinion that sociology was different from other branches of social science and deemed it necessary to confine to the enquiry of certain defined aspects of human relationship. It was to study only the abstract forms of social relationships but not their contents. They regard sociology as pure and independent science. According to Simmel, sociology is distinct from other social sciences for the reason that it has its own abstract mode of dealing with the same topic of social relationship which other social science like history, economics, political science etc. too deals with, but in their own way. To him sociology is a specific social science that describes, classifies, analyses, and delineates the forms of social relationships. Vierkandt maintains that sociology is a special branch of knowledge concerned with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationships, which link men to one another in society. He was of the opinion that...
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