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Human Body Structure

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Ćelija / cellula , ae , f / je najmanja strukturna i funkcionalna jedinica organizma , odvojena ćelijskom membranom od okoline.
PODELA
EUKARIOTE -čovek i PROKARIOTE-bakterije
GRAĐA
EUKARIOTE imaju : 1. MEMBRANU 2. NUKLEUS 3. CITOPLAZMU SA ORGANELAMA

ĆELIJSKE ORGANELE-Su potopljene u citoplazmu tj nukleoplazmu
MEMBRANSKE :Nukleus,Mitohondrije,Golđi aparat,Lizozomi, Peroksizomi , Endoplazmin retikulum
NEMEMBRANSKE :Ribozomi , Centriol ,Nukleolus ,Hromozomi

U citoplazmi mogu da se nalaze i inkluzije:glikogen,lipidi,pigmenti,kristali.
Pored ćelijskih organela / endocitozni i egzocitozni put / postoje i specifični odeljci : - ćelijski korteks - citocentar - bazalni deo - apikalni deo - lateralni deo
- Sve ćelije potiču od : zigota i imaju isti genom , samo se tokom diferencijacije ćelija eksprimiraju različiti geni.
- U zavisnosti od funkcije , ćelije imaju različit oblik i veličinu
- Ćelije istog tipa ne moraju imati iste funkcinalne osobine
Mikrosredina menja karakteristike ćelije
Veličine su od 5 - 150 mikrometara
Većina ćelija je polarizovana

* ĆELIJSKA MEMBRANA
- Predstavlja metabolički aktivan omotač koji odvaja citoplazmu od ekstracelularnog prostora Predstavlja selektivan transportni filter
Poseduje : hormonske , imune i druge receptore
Ima troslojnu organizaciju
STRUKTURA MEMBRANE
Osnovna struktura je : kontinuirani fosfolipidni dvosloj : * fosfatidilholin * fosfatidiletanolamin * fosfatidilserin * sfingomijelin
Prisutni su i : * holesterol koji povećava stabilnost membrane * glikolipidi koji obezbeđuju interakciju ćelije sa spoljnom sredinom
- proteini : integralni i periferni

INTEGRALNI PROTEINI-
Inkorporirani direktno u lipidni dvosloj
Mogubiti :
TRANSMEMBRANSKI – integrini vezani spoljašnjim delom za fibronektin i laminin ekstracelularnog matriksa a unutrašnjim delom u vezi je sa aktinskim mikrofilamentima citoskeleta
PERIFERNI – slabim vezama povezani za unutrašnju ili spojašnju površinumembrane
Ćelijske membrane su asimetrične tj. građa unutrašnjeg i spoljašnjeg sloja se razlikuje i imaju različite funkcije. Ugljeni hidrati se nalaze samo u spoljašnjem sloju i lumenskoj strani membrane membranskih organela. Različite ćelije takođe poseduju I različit sastav ćelijske membrane kao i različite ćelijske organele.

CITOPLAZMA CITOPLAZMA – CITOSOL – HIJALOPLAZMA pH - 7, 2 - okružuje nukleus , providna je , tečna i bezstrukturna supstanca u kojoj se nalaze : citoskelet, organele, inkluzije U njoj su rastvoreni mnogi : enzimi , RNK , aminokiseline , joni i različiti metaboliti
Pored tečne komponente , postoji i fina mreža mikrotrabekula , proteinskih lanaca , koja povezuje različite komponente citoskeleta , koordiniše pokrete organela i reguliše neke metaboličke procese.
CENTRIOL
Cilindrična nemembranska organela
- Čini je 9 tripleta mikrotubula
- Raspored mikrotubula oblika zupčanika
- Svaki mikrotubul ima po tri subfibrile A, B i C
- Zid subfibrile A je kompletan a čine ga : 13 protofilamenata tubulina
- Zid subfibrile B i C je nekopletan , delimično ulazi u sastav susednog mikrotubula
- Sličan je po građi bazalnom telu cilije i flagele
- Tokom interfaze, ćelija ima par centriola koji su postavljeni pod pravim uglom
CENTROZOM- CITOCENTAR
Predstavlja specijalizovani region ćelije gde se nalazi centriol okružen elektronski gustom supstancom.Obično je postavljen uz jedro tj. centralno ali može zauzimati i periferan položaj.Oko centriola se nalazi pericentriolski materijal koji povezuje par centriola i γ – tubulin.Pericentriolski materijal sadrži proteine koji povezuju centrozom sa Golđi kompleksom.Tokom interfaze od njiega polaze mikrotubuli citoskeleta obrazujući mrežu koja utiče na oblik i polarizovanost ćelije.
Tokom ćelijskog ciklusa par centriola se udvostruči.U mitozi oni se razdvajaju i migriraju na suprotne polove ćelije formirajući deobno vreteno.
Centriol ne sadrži DNK ni RNK
Mikrotubuli centriola kao i mikrotubuli citoskeleta sadrže : monomere α - i - β tubulina a pericentriolski materijal sadrži : monomere γ - tubulina i neke druge proteine.

MITOHONDRIJE
Membranske organele , ovalnog oblika , dijametra 0,5 - 1 µm , često su asocirane za mikrotubule
Imaju dve membrane , intermembranozni prostor , matrix
UNUTRAŠNJA MEMBRANA sadrži veliku količinu fosfolipida kardiolipina , pa je nepermeabilna za jone
Bogata je proteinima koji obavljaju tri različite funkcije : 1. Obavljaju oksidativne reakcije i transport elektrona
2. ATP sintaza sintetiše ATP u matriksu
3. Transportni proteini omogućavaju prolaz metabolita u i iz matriksa
Sadrži elementarne partikule koje sadrže kompleks proteina sa aktivnošću ATP sintaze.Poseduje kriste koje povećavaju njenu površinu a postavljene su poprečno u odnosu na dužnu osu
SPOLAŠNJA MEMBRANA sadrži veliku količinu – porina – pa je veoma propustljiva za u vodi rastvorljive molekule mase do 5000
INTERMEMBRANOZNI PROSTOR je po hemijskom sastavu sličan sastavu citosola
Prostor između kristi ispunjava MATRIKS koji sadrži enzime , granule , ribozome i cirkularnu DNK koja kodira neke proteine ovih organela
Mitohondrije su glavni ćelijski proizvođač E u obliku ATP – a i nalaze se u blizini struktura koje troše mnogo energije
Veoma su pokretne i plastične organele , često menjaju oblik , fuzionišući se sa drugim mitohondrijama.

RIBOZOMI
- Male , nemembranske organele , prečnika 15 - 25 nm * Sintetišu proteine * Sastoje se od 2 asimetrične subjedinice ( 40 S i 60 S ) koje obrazuju : rRNK i proteini Mogu biti :
1. slobodni u citoplazmi a vrše sintezu citosolnih proteina koji se po sintezi transportuju u nukleus , mitohondrije i peroksizome
2. vezani za membranu ERvršeći sintezu : a . proteina koji se izlučuju iz ćelije b . proteina odvojenih od citosola
c. integralnih membranskih proteina
Između slobodnih i vezanih ribozoma nema strukturnih razlika
Razlika je u tome što sintetišu različite proteine i po tome da li imaju ili ne , signalnu sekvencu koja određuje da li će se vezati za membranu ER ili će ostati slobodni u citoplazmi
Mogu biti : POJEDINAČNI ili GRUPISANI – POLIZOMI
RNK ribozoma daje bazofilna svojstva citoplazmi

ENDOPLAZMIN RETIKULUM
Membranska organela,skoro u svim ćelijama.Splet nepravilnih , spljoštenih cisterni
DVE VRSTE :
1. GRANULIRANI – sa ribozomima na površini
2. GLATKI – bez ribozoma
- U kontinuitetu je sa nukleusnim omotačem- Cisterne su u vezi sa mikrotubulima
- Osnovna uloga : sinteza lipida i proteina
GLATKI -Tubuli prečnika 20 - 60 nm bez ribozoma . Razvijen u ćelijama koje sintetišu lipide, steroidne hormone , lipide membrana Depo jona kalcijuma
Enzimi grupe citohroma P 450
U mišićima – njegova modifikacija : sarkoplazmin retikulum
U trombocitima – sistem kanala sa elektronski gustim sadržajem

GRANULISANI-Pljosnate cisterne povezane kratkim tubulima. Na površini adirani ribozomi i poliribozomi.Osnovna uloga : sinteza proteina koji se izlučuju iz ćelije kao i proteina membrane.Sinteza proteina započinje na ribozomima a potom se zadržavaju u membrani ili pak translokacijom ulaze u cisternu , modifikuju se i transportuju do cis cisterne Golđi kompleksa gde se kondenzuje materijal i u vidu sekretorne granule egzocitozom napušta ćeliju

GOLĐI KOMPLEKS-Membranska organela , skoro u svim ćelijama.Nalazi se oko nukleusa ili na sekretornom polu
Uloga : 1. Modifikacija sintetisanih peptida i proteina
2. Sinteza polisaharida i glikoproteina 3. Pakovanje sekreta u granule i njihovo usmeravanje
4. Stvaranje lizozoma
5. Recirkulacija i obnavljanje membrana
GRAĐA GOLĐI KOMPLEKSA-- 4 – 20 glatkih fenestriranih diskoidnih cisterni.Cisterne su međusobno razdvojene , okružene brojnim vezikulama. Cisterne formiraju DIKTIOZOME sa konveksitetom okrenutim ka nukleus. Broj diktiozoma i broj cisterni u njima raste sa porastom sekretorne aktivnosti ćelija.Između cisterni nema ribozoma.Cisterne su vezane za mikrotubule
Diktiozomi su povezani sistemom tubula
Konveksna strana diktiozoma - CIS STRANA je formirajuća ili ulazna strana CIS CISTERNE- Konkavna strana diktiozoma - TRANS STRANA je maturirajuća ili izlazna strana TRANS CISTERNE
- Između CIS i TRANS cisterni nalaze se MEDIJALNE CISTERNE
Proteini koji dolaze iz cisterni GER – a , ulaze kroz cis stranu i pupljenjem nastale transportne vezikule putuju do trans cisterni . Od ovog nivoa , ako proteini treba egzocitozom da napuste ćeliju , nastaju pupljenjem membrane trans cisterne sekretorne vezikule i granule
Obrađuju se : proteini lizozoma , proteini koji napuštaju ćeliju ili se deponuju proteini koji tek po stimulaciji napuštaju ćelju

LIZOZOMI-- Membranske organele , loptastog oblika
- Specijalizovane za intercelularnu ingestiju :
- HETEROFAGOCITOZA
- spolja unete materije -
- AUTOFAGOCITOZA
- ostarele ili oštećene ćelije -
- Visok sadržaj hidrolitičkih enzima
- Nalaze se u skoro svim ćelijama ali ih ima najviše u ćelijama koje imaju sposobnost fagocitoze : makrofazi, neutrofilni granulociti
Enzimi lizozoma
Nastaju u GER – u , modifikuju se u G . A .
- Od tras - cisterne nastaju vezikule kojima se transportuju u : KASNE ENDOZOME
- Njihovom modifikacijom i sazrevanjem nastaju : PRIMARNI LIZOZOMI
- Ima ih oko 60 : proteaze , kisela fosfataza, sulfataza , lipaze , RNK - ze , DNK - ze ,β – glukuronidaza.. Aktivni pri pH 5 MEMBRANA LIZOZOMA
Sadrži specifične proteine koji štite njenu unutrašnju površinu od dejstva enzima I sprečava njihov prelaz u citosol što bi dovelo do autolize ćelije
Izuzetak :
- Keratinociti
- Osteoklasti
PRIMARNI LIZOZOMI-Su oni lizozomi koji još nisu učestvovali u procesu fagocitoze
SEKUNDARNI LIZOZOMI-Su primarni lizozomi fuzionisani sa fagocitnom vakuolom : / FAGOZOM / u kojoj se nalazi spolja uneta materija koja podleže degradaciji
Nerazloženi deo fagocitovanog sadržaja ostaje u vakuoli – REZIDUALNO TELO
Više njih – LIPOFUSCINSKE INKLUZIJE

MULTIVEZIKULARNA TELA- su vakuole sa varijabilnim brojem sitnih, prividno praznih vezikula ili su vrsta sekundarnih lizozoma ili su kasni endozomi Prisutni u : hepatocitima , epitelnim ćelijama duktusa epididimisa , sinciciotrofoblastu , mezotelnim ćelijama , pneumocitima tipa II , megakariocitima

PEROKSIZOMI-- U skoro svim ćelijama.Male , homogene vakuole .Sadržaj nikad ne oslobađaju egzocitozom
- Sadrže enzime :peroksidazu , katalazu , flavin oksidazu
- Vrše : redukciju H2O2 , učestvuju u metabolizmu lipida,glikoneogenezi,detoksikaciji,sintezi mijelina
- Nastaju deobom peroksizoma
- Rastu unosom proteina iz citosola

ĆELIJSKI DEPOI-Odeljci citoplazme sa nagomilanim određenim materijama
- ĆELIJSKE INKLUZIJE -
- SEKRETORNE VEZIKULE - - SEKRETORNE GRANULE -

ĆELIJSKE INKLUZIJE-Hemijski inertne akumulacije metabolita u citoplazmi čija količina zavisi od aktivnosti ćelije
1. PIGMENTI
2. KRISTALNE INKLUZIJE
3. LIPIDI
4. GLIKOGEN

PIGMENTI-. MELANIN – mrke boje , sintetišu ga melanociti a ima ga u koži ,dlaci ,dužici oka,substanciji nigri
2. LIPOFUSCIN – žutomrke boje,nastaje tokom starenja ćelija , krajnji je proizvod autofagocitoze
3. RODOPSIN i IODOPSIN – pigmenti vidnih receptora
4. HEMOSIDERIN – zlatnosmeđe boje , sadrži Fe , nastaje razgradnjom hemoglobina , ima ga u jetri, slezini, kostnoj srži
KRISTALNE INKLUZIJE-Normalan su sastojak mnogih ćelija : Sertolijeve i Lajdigove ćelije testisa
LIPIDNE INKLUZIJE-Loptastog oblika , različite veličine , satoje se od triglicerida , bez membrane već ih od citoplazme deli tanak sloj mikrofilamenata,okružene tubulima GER – a , prisutne u adipocitima
GLIGOGEN-Polimer glikoze , nastaje u SER - u , ima ga u jetri i mišićnim ćelijama

SEKRETORNE VEZIKULE-Loptastog oblika , membranom odvojene od citosola , u ćelijama san konstitutivnim tipom sekrecije , nekoncentrovani sadržaj SEKRETORNE GRANULE-Loptastog oblika , membranom odvojene od citosola , u ćelijama sa regulisanim tipom sekrecije , koncentrovani sadržaj

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