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我者與他者歷史報告(下) 法一C 許庭瑄04141343
第十章 唐代的中國
摘要: 經過南北朝時代的混合,隋唐的中國,其內涵的成分及外延的界線,與漢代的中國,已有極大的差別。唐代的我者與其四周的他者,便也相應的不同於前,也因此出現了前所未見的性質。例如北朝晚期,鮮卑等族群融入中國,隋唐兩代的君主,多件種突厥的支持而向其臣服,這便是前所未見的情況。而唐太宗最終統領中國,被奉為天可汗,尊為五胡君主,亦為雙元體制的象徵。除此外,同時代表草原各族將當時中國視為國際社會的一部份,而不是南北對峙的敵人。這顯現出中國的態度不能在自居為天下,而不允許天下中有平等的他者。中國作為國際社會的盟主,雖號稱維持秩序,惟多為維持霸權的口號。整體而言,唐代中國中雖有服從的國家,然亦有國家於大唐秩序之外,與漢代相較而言,漢代除匈奴外,己乎無與之平等的國家,而唐代卻不同的處與列國體制的國際社會中,不能自居為天下中心,因而不得與吐蕃聯盟。 唐代中國內部,又多了些外來人口成為內部的他者。有自近邊外族流入,例如安祿山,亦有因商來華貿易而流離中國的胡商番客,多以西域人為主,另外則是整群投奔中國的外族,例如當時被伊斯蘭勢力阿拔斯王朝擊敗的當地部落。這些居民若是久留,對於中國仍有重大影響。文化方面,佛教的引入為一文化的他者,影起儒家等本土學者反彈,甚至引發打擊佛教的三五法難。但整體而言,自北朝到唐末,因應他者的影響,無論服裝、樂曲、飲食、宗教,中國人的生活已有重大改變,也因此包容,史中國的內涵更為豐富

與高中課本比較: 高中課本所描述的唐代多以多元形容,除了多元外,
也多從文化等方面提出證據,包含胡漢融合、宗教多元開放,唐朝呈獻多民族的情況而看起來十分繁華。而本書則提出不同觀點,任為唐朝如此現象,意味著心態上的轉變,對於原本中國歷代所堅持的天下做出讓步,而任可其他民族為平等的他者,甚至唐代於這樣的體制中,也不得不與他國同盟。

第十一章 宋代:列國體制下的中國
摘要: 相較於唐末後的中國分裂及北方五個短暫的朝代更迭,宋代建國便使中國本部有了比較安定的政權。宋代的中國與過去格局不同,在原來中華帝國所指的天下,宋只統治了核心部分,也出現了好幾個足以與宋抗衡的國家,例如:遼國、金國、西夏等。凡此諸國皆為宋代的他者,而又彼此互為他者,中國也不再是天下的共主,甚至也不是霸主,而必須在列國體制的格局中,力求自己的獨立自主。 宋朝因採取重文輕武政策,與遼、金、夏的抗爭屢戰屢敗,而多以歲幣的名義以換取和平。在此和平來往期間,宋遼之間貿易不斷,而宋朝在列國體制中,我者與他者的關係不再是天朝上國,也不再是天可汗,而是國際經濟貿易網絡中,一個重要的環節。此外,宋國對於其南方各國也採遠交近攻模式予以制衡,試圖使商路不被壟斷,由此可知,宋國便處於列國體制中,其與他國外交之方式,並不為上國身分自居霸主。宋朝便以出口絲帛瓷器為主,進口皮毛馬匹,甚至經濟發達到發明了交子。因整體而言,當時的南北各國,已編織為一個東亞經濟圈,經由海陸兩途,與各國經濟體相接。

雖於此列國網絡得以自存,但宋國仍不忘天朝上國情節,便時常多有挑釁,惟此舉卻引來亡國之禍。北宋滅亡後,南宋的民族主義思想興起,但卻又以天朝上國的天下意識為理論寄託,使宋人風氣昧於實物、國勢不彰,又不甘心與他國同為列國體制下。當時的遼、夏兩國,是最能威脅中國的強鄰,但其文化與政經體制、甚至於宗教,皆不算超越宋國,亦難以成為宋國可以汲取的資源,使宋代文化遂走了內斂的途徑。另外,唐代對於宋仍有重大影響,例如自唐代引進的佛教資源,宋代時便整合釋道於儒家,理學更整合了儒道佛的思想資源,集結為完備的體系。而關於宋代的行政系統,仍以君權為中心,惟高官多為文官儒生,且若集體而言,文官多能糾集黨派,甚至長久挾君權以把持朝政。另一方面,宋代為防止黃袍加身的戲碼,多於地區設置互相牽制的官員以避免藩鎮割據,使當時的地方毫無自主權,更導致宋代行政系統幾乎癱瘓。因此,縱使宋代儒生眾多,仍難以發揮理性的專業的特性,反而在鄉里備受尊敬,藉由聯姻、同門等關係,壯大地方菁英的實際影響力,甚至超越行政公權力,以地方的他者,掌握基層。

與高中課本的比較: 高中課本對於宋朝以歲幣換取和平的行為,多以經濟優勢和重文輕武作為簡單的解釋。然而本書認為宋朝有如此改變,遂因宋國需要與其他國家鄉並存,在同個列國體制下,力求獨立,且成為東亞經濟貿易樞紐中重要的一環。此外,高中課本對於宋朝最後仍又侵略他國則未多作解釋,而本書則以宋朝仍不忘天朝上國情節的角度理解。而宋國的不甘心,則源自於遼、夏兩國雖為武力強國,惟其文化、政經體制皆難以成為宋國汲取效法的對象。

第十二章 蒙古的時代
摘要: 因為中國僅占蒙古的一部份,蒙古並不能稱作中國的朝代。然而以當時域地外他族觀點而言,中國並非以漢族為主體的一個國家,與中國人自己理解的內涵有所差異。所以對於蒙元的定義,無法以中國朝代單純界定,也不能以中國的征服王朝為其定位,對於我者與他者的討論將更為複雜。 成吉思汗崛起,不斷兼併草原上各個部落,此過程中,蒙古的涵義也不斷改變。舊日的敵人由他者變為我者,甚至藉由投降轉為蒙古本身的武力運用。此皆源自於蒙古本身族人人數不多,不得不吸納舊日的敵人以對抗新的他者,此一舉動與西周以小國擊商有相似之處。然而溪州取天下後因有數百年的國祚,因而得以緩慢、漸漸地與各族群融入。惟蒙古征服迅速,還來不及融合諸族,此為不同之處。此外,成吉思汗也志在擴張牧地而不僅只於中國的農地,而繼承部落領導權則非由分封,需經忽理台的選汗大會,此一是由造成各個汗國之間的內戰鬥爭,蒙古後來實質上已分裂為四五個互不相屬的單位。 蒙古本市沒有文教的戰鬥族群,後來則以藏文為基礎,創制了後世沿用的蒙古文。而關於其宗教,蒙古原為信仰薩滿教,並無特殊思考,僅為通靈的民俗信仰,然而蒙古所統治的範圍內,宗教信仰五花八門,整體而言,蒙古人相當尊重個人信仰,是以也導致整個蒙古大帝國缺乏以一貫知的倫理規範,甚至本無自己信仰的蒙古人,遭分化於分封當地的文化。此外,各族群的知識分子也都曾為蒙古帝國借重其文化傳統,然而一群不同族群背景的官員,理念溝通上難免衝突,再加上蒙元的制度下,地方政務並不全由中央節制,而使蒙元政權並未出現有組織的行政系統。蒙古的發展,並非以我吸納他者而日益增高,反而其自我分別消融於許多他者之中,但也因為蒙古部過度凝聚他者,反而將歐亞大陸連為一體,通疏航運陸路,無疑已將所謂舊世界結合於一經濟網絡中,亦即今日全球化的前身。

與高中課本的比較: 高中課本大多稱蒙古統治的時代為元朝,然而本書卻認為中國僅為蒙古統治的一部分,因而蒙元時期難以被稱為是中國歷史上的一個朝代。此外本書也提及了許多高中課本並未談論的現象,例如蒙古快速征服個底,融合多種民族,然而卻並未有足夠時間化其他者為我者,反而因為其族人本就對於文化有所缺乏,且將官員任命與不同族群,使蒙古的發展並未吸納他者,而相對將自我消融於許多他者當中。

第十三章 明代中國
摘要: 明代初期非常重視反蒙元政策,也因此我者與他者的對立十分明顯。而明代設立邊牆的邊防政策更反應如此,此一心理即是我者與他者的絕對隔絕。相對於唐代的天可汗觀念,明人已經不再期許為普世天下的共主,更非天下的中心。因為以當時情勢而言,新疆以西還有蒙古的大小汗國、東邊遼東外的獨立女真族群,名代號令不能到,甚至試圖干預也失敗,承認其非共主的事實。 關於鄭和下西洋,目的多在於蒐集資訊,也準備由南方及海上牽制蒙兀兒帝國,縱使英宗被俘,明代無北伐實力,仍然無改守為攻的打算,而僅在劃疆而守。而關於倭寇騷擾東南,其實多為中國海上不法集團糾結無所歸屬的日本浪人於沿海做國際走私,然而當時仍多認為以日本為主體。在日本出兵朝鮮時,明廷則因倭亂而早有戒心,出兵援助朝鮮,中國則是以援朝防日的心態進行支援,乃是以攻為守的戰略。上述幾件事,皆顯示明代與唐代不同,並未建構以中國為中心的天下國家,明代時的中國只想安於東亞列國中的大國。唯有在西南部,明代才相當有效的化他為我。 而關於明代中央與地方的關係,則與漢代模式相似,卻也不盡相同。明代的地方官制並無駐軍長官干涉民政的現象,其問題反而在於宦官干政。不論軍政民政,君主信任宦官,各地又有宮中派宦官管理的特殊產品生產、官家作坊等單位。住外地的宦官經常干擾地方政務,因此明代統治機制,因為權力核心的君權有各地宦官的插手,破壞了地方建置的呼應效應。 在文化方面,朱子理學為文化正統,因為其正符合專制政權所要求的穩定秩序,也因此影響明代科考,皆依照朱子所詮釋的理學系統運行。而清代也承接此一正統,使朱子理學為文化領域主流的我者。而在明代挑戰朱子理學的他者便是由王陽明發展的心學。而於明代晚年,王學興盛,且與佛教禪宗互相滲透,這一他者變成為一時顯學,惟終於明末遭到反彈,而清代考證經典,亦為反抗一例。 儒學整體而論,仍為中國思想體系的主流,而關於其他他者的挑戰,則有許多民間信仰、摩尼教、明教等等,反映民間另有一個長期存在的他者,不但挑戰政權,也挑戰儒家的主流思想。

與高中課本的比較: 關於明代,本書有同樣不同於高中課本的對於朝代轉換的想法多加敘述。本書認為明代對於外族則不同於蒙元班開放,雖然仍承認自己為列國體制的一員,且不為共主,卻也同時有我者與他者絕對隔絕的現象。此外,高中課本所提及的鄭和下西洋多以尋找失蹤的皇帝為理由,然而本書認為此舉是為了蒐集資料病防範蒙兀兒帝國。關於宦官干政方面,本書則較深入的先介紹行政系統,再討論宦官如何癱瘓行政機制。另外,對於朱子理學與心學之爭,本書也以我者他者的相對觀念作為解釋。

第十四章 滿清帝國
摘要: 滿清帝國其實分為兩個部分,一個是中國部分,另一個是蒙古與西藏,雖兩者並不互相統屬,卻由同一皇室領有。對於其西部的統治,仍如同自己人,優禮有加,而關於中國,則視其為征服的領土。中國地區的管理又分漢滿兩類,滿人由各旗貝勒管轄,而較早投降的漢官則編為漢軍八旗,其地位於滿漢之間,但仍不歸於漢官管理。而中國的漢人百姓及少數民族,即絕大部分的人口,則以漢官衙門治理。從上述可得知,滿清帝國的統治機制可分為多層級,多元結構下,滿族皇室的我者面對了多種不同的他者,而這些他者,又可能因為某些情勢而轉變為我者。滿清入關時,難免與漢族殺戮產生對立,雖三代後逐漸消弭,惟滿清後期政府無能,遭漢人責備,兩族群間的對立又死灰復燃。是以兩族群之間的我者與他者界線,其實未曾消融。太平天國以前,因為擔心漢員掌權,也多由滿員任官,且不論資格出任官職,因此造成官吏素質不齊。加上清代有絕對的酋長威權,行政系統難以制衡,使清代士大夫多有不滿。雖士大夫於地方事務上仍有些微影響力,但因遷入都市,相較於內陸地區,難再有群眾基礎及制衡政治權力的社會力。亦即在內部菁英無力挑戰政權時,其政權於皇帝英明時,是相對穩地的。 而滿清帝國的衰敗,則是因文化與市場系統的問題。清代儒生致力於考證學,然而考古不具義理,畏難滿足人心對於價值的探求,而使一些員受朱子學影響而不願僵化的人士不得不轉向正統以外,於今文學派找出路。他們提倡通經致用,而另有一群人則藉民間宗教,例如太平天國,作為對於上層社會的反抗,是以他者反撲優勢的正統。這些反正統的觀念存於市井小民和知識分子中,不斷以不同形式和組織挑戰專制皇權,最終引領革命推翻滿清政權。此外市場方面,應人已輸入鴉片逆轉了原本中國的貿易順差,以及多次戰爭影響經濟,逐漸瓦解了原本龐大的市場網絡,甚至使城鄉之間互為他者。因為對於滿清早期的外患,四面並無足以挑戰我者的他者,滿清政權對於全球化的浪潮失去了調適能力的內在因素,直至鴉片戰爭,過去原本處於優勢的我者皆淪為弱勢,場合顛倒,我與他的地位甚至易位。

與高中課本的比較: 本書提及許多高中課本未提及的內容,關於清代所統治包含蒙古與西藏,且對待這些地區的方式不同於對待漢人般。另外也有說明關於八旗制度及滿人對於漢人的族群恩怨。而關於滿清的滅亡,高中課本並未詳細說明,而認為僅是揮霍過度。然而本書則認為長久的安逸造成制度體系無法適應轉變,進而造成僵化的現象,使得原本處於優勢的我者皆淪落為他者。尤其無論於國勢、今文學與考證學、市場貿易皆如是。

第十五章 近代的變化
摘要: 中國在天下國家模式,儒家的主流思想、農業與市場經濟,即使有所變化,也多在東亞一帶進行。長程的掌控,易有趨勢用完的一刻,而此衰變過程,往往先有結構僵化的現象出現。滿清入主中國,即是中國歷史衰變之際,西方文化帶來新的變數,以致在全球化之下中國有了巨大改變。 雖滿清不是第一個入主中原的外族,但其政策對於大部分的中國人有所踐踏,使得中國文化的菁英,於清朝易帶多失去創新能力,於義理方面一片空白。而滿清政權前期空前的穩定,則是不再有他者加以刺激,於盛世自滿之餘,便不再有進步空間,縱使偶有揭竿起義等情事,惟多屬於社會底邊成分,僅能擾亂一時。此狀況造成清室內外均無足以挑戰權威的力量,尤其乾隆以盛事自稱,對外態度與康熙初期戰戰兢兢,殷切尋求國際知識相比,有天壤之別。故清朝之所以亡國,其緣故即在滿清原有可以調節的複雜體系,已完全僵化了。 直到西洋文化打入中國後,不少知識分子才著急為中國尋求對策,惟在其改革期間,各階段的人彼此斥責、互相仇視,也各自盡了心力。但原以為的中國經歷如此大的改變,甚至可以提問原來的中國是否還存在?首先經濟網絡自原本的鄉村、城市差異,擴大到南北差異,緊接著又因鴉片輸入而國家陷於貧窮,僅沿海地區繁榮,使得城鄉之間,沿海與內地之間,由相互通濟變為疏離。此形勢遂引發文化層面的相應變化。沿海地區孕育了西方文化精英,甚至文化歸屬於西方,使中國逐漸裂解為兩個部分。然而共產黨快速的占領農存作為基地,日本侵華,都市殘破,國民黨失去都市基地,遂被中共已龐大人口,吞噬了正在蛻變的沿海都市。 此一時期,中國文化的我者與他者經過多次反覆,先是漢人排滿而形成我者與他者,但當相對於西方的他者時,遂又擴大於五族共和的概念解釋一個多族群的中華民族。另一方面,中國的文化菁英幾乎已完全西化的情況下,不再欣賞傳統中國原典、詩集等。雖強調民族意識,卻又沒有依託於文化基礎,形成矛盾。中國的經濟與文化,都在歸屬於全球化的過程中,然而卻又也同時凝聚了一個可能排他的意識。

與高中課本的比較: 本書在此章節強調我者與他者之間的轉換,先是漢人排滿而形成我者與他者,但當相對於西方的他者時,遂又擴大於五族共和的概念解釋一個多族群的中華民族。相對於高中課本,則僅簡單介紹外族入侵而引發民族情感的膨脹。且關於中國文化菁英的內在想法,本書也提及中國多次革新失敗的原因,因為中國的文化菁英在西化的情況下,間接的否定了傳統,卻又強調民族意識,因而行成矛盾。另外,城鄉差距字原本的相輔相成,因為吸換的關係而轉變為彼此疏離,也是很重要的改變因素。

第十六章 國共兩黨的中國
摘要: 孫中山所提出的三民主義中,民族主義已超越了漢滿之辨,中國的民族蓋以五族共和為基礎,將重心放在對抗外來的帝國主義身上。而民權主義為當今民有、民治、民享中的民治,即民主政治。而關於民生主義,孫中山則認為是社會主義,並提出救困濟貧等主張。相較於西方資本主義如日中天,孫中山所提出的共產主義便在如此環境孕育滋長,並在俄國革命後聯共,然作者認為孫中山的理想國並不實際。而關於黃金十年,對於多項事務均能粗具規摸的建設,惟當時蔣氏的統一多著重於聯合地方割據力量結為同盟,擊退北洋軍閥,並藉此取得共主之位。但南京政府的支持者多為已和西方併軌的富商,並造成城鄉之間的落差。南京政府的官員早已和內地農存的中國本土間嚴重疏離,於是統治與被統治階層間,轉變為現代和傳統的分野。而且統治者遂已追求現代的口號,放棄了本土的另一半。且有資產者是政權資源所倚,國家公權力更不會為維護貧弱而實行民生主義。 蔣氏最能堅持的便是爭取中國完整的民族主義、維護主權,在抵抗日本侵華的八年內用盡一切努力。然蔣氏的行政網絡、文化與經濟等建設皆不夠完善,甚至可說是放棄了滯留與中國傳統的農村,以及眾多農民,而都市的勞工部分,也只能藉由改造原有幫會,加以管制而已,蓋南京政府之改造,僅做到高層機構而已。 中共革命,從長程歷史觀看,便是一連串變化的開始階段而已。毛澤東的領到地位定於一尊,甚至可說超越了列代帝王。而中共與國民黨不同的便在於建構了掌握廣大內地農存的機制,以黨和軍隊滲透農村,連結成廣大的中共基地。相較國民黨而言,國府僅建立控制上層的機構,本部牢固的根基,經過八年抗戰的摧殘,自然兵敗如山倒。

與高中課本的比較: 高中課本中多認為國民黨失敗的原因是因放棄農村,而究竟為合放棄農村會造成失敗責為多作解釋。而本書則認為國民黨僅對於已西化有錢上層階級社會有所掌控,但可說是放棄了滯留於傳統的農村,變失去了本部牢固的根基。況在西方文化的侵略下,國民黨所領導的南京政府官員多與存地區人民疏離,原本城市與鄉村的差距,轉為現代與傳統的差距。而放棄農村的舉動與國民黨原本主張的民生主義、維護貧弱型成矛盾,更造成了民眾得不信任,因而造成黨的失敗。

心得: 相較於起初僅念到第九章時的感想,當完整的閱讀完本書後,又有些許不同的感受。高中課本中的敘述多像是條列式的提及我們該記憶的事項及各年代的大小瑣事,並未給予歷史中發生的歷史事件給予一個合理的解釋。本書詳盡的以各個方面的角度去了解一個國家的興起、衰敗,一個政策為何施行、又造成何種影響。有些事情並不如我們想像般的,就這樣簡單的發生,可能是經過許多複雜的系統產生變化,一連串的反應下才導致的。比如滿清政權在內部政治極為穩定的狀態下,反而使其行政系統失去調節能力,甚至並未跟上全球化的浪潮,導致在外患的強勢侵略下,逐步衰敗。比起閱讀,或許觀看本書又更像是欣賞一部流動的歷史劇一般,每個國家的領導人做的決定,都是可以在書中找到理由和答案的。此外,作者雖然分別以年代分章敘述,然而也會同時解釋上個朝代對現在的朝代所帶來的影響。例如唐末的藩鎮割據導致宋朝重文輕武的現象;又如明代的朱子理學對於清代考據學也有所影響等。另一方面,書中也會詳盡的介紹各個組織國家的系統,行政、交通要道、經濟網絡、信仰與教育等等。在了解當代的風土民情後,才更能體會歷史事件的發生背景與當時人民與政府的想法與意識形態,並以此套用在我者與他者之間的關係上。我認為雖歷史事件已是既定事實,但經由不同的解釋方式,如本書與高中課本的差異,便會對相同的事實產生不同的看法。 在書中所提的我者與他者認定範圍有所更迭時,往往也伴隨著歷史事件的發生。有時意識的改變造就了歷史事件的發生,而有時也相反的藉由事件的發生改變了意識。不可否認的,本書在主觀人們的想法與客觀發生的事件串連在一起一併討論。我想這或許也才正符合了,人創造了歷史,並被歷史而改造的特性。時間的洪流不停地沖刷,在宏觀的審視其所帶來與帶去的一切時,也才更能體會歷史的意義。

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...historical element—as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, and visual and performing arts such as music and theatre. The humanities that are also sometimes regarded as social sciences include history, anthropology, area studies, communication studies, cultural studies, law and linguistics. Scholars in the humanities are sometimes described as humanists. However, that term also describes the philosophical position of humanism, which some "antihumanist" scholars in the humanities reject. Some secondary schools offer humanities classes, usually consisting of English literature, global studies, and art. Human disciplines like history, cultural anthropology, and psychoanalysis study subject matters the experimental method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method and comparative research. Branches of Humanities Languages - This particular branch of humanities consists of learning the way people communicate in different speaking countries. It brings a sense of culture to individuals as they are likely to be taught the various history and origins of the languages they learn. The arts - The arts consist of theater, music, art and film. They are all mediums of self expression and these courses in particular encourage personal interpretation and analysis. Fine arts courses also come into this category; however, they focus more on the historical...

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The Fiftieth Gate

...MODULE C – History and Memory Sample 1 How has your understanding of events, personalities or situations been shaped by their representations in the texts you have studied. Refer to your prescribed text and at least TWO other related texts of your own choosing. History can be defined as “the methodical record of public events” where memory is defined as “the faculty by which events are recalled or kept in mind”. Thus history and memory interrelate as history can be seen as the contextual justification for memory. “The Fiftieth Gate” is a poignant interweaving of history and memory. The text follows protagonist, Mark Baker an historian, son of Holocaust survivors Genia and Yossl (Joe), on an historical journey through memory, to uncover the origins of his past and act as a catalyst for future generations to also connect with their history. Mark Baker’s journey through history and memory is also executed through his conventional ideas that memory is biased and less valid than history. There are numerous references to the discrepancies between the personal memories of his parents and the documented history Mark as an historian believes. In this way it is apparent that Mark is on a quest for verification, “my facts from the past are different”. This displays the flaw Mark traditionally notes in memory and his need for historical evidence. As responders accompany Mark on his journey, they also encounter the complexity of simultaneously being a son and an historian. This...

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