...Income and substitution effect of a change in price. When a good changes in price, the quantity demanded will be changed by the sum of the substitution and income effects. Substitution effect: When the price of a good rises, consumers will buy less and less of that good and more of other goods because it is now relatively more expensive than the price of other goods. If the price of a good falls, consumers will buy more of the good and less of others. These changes in quantity demanded sole due to the relative changes in prices are known as the substitution effect of a price change. Income effect: if the price of a good rises, the real income of consumers will fall, as they will not be able to buy the same baskets of goods as before. Consumers can react to the change in one of two ways; if the good is a normal good they will buy less but if it is an inferior good, they will buy more. These changes in quantity demanded caused by a change in real income is known as the income effect of a price change. For a normal good, the income and substitution effect work in the same direction. A rise in price leads to a fall in quantity demanded because the relative price of the good has risen. It also leads to a fall in quantity demanded because there is a reduction in real income. So an increase in price leads to a decrease in quantity demanded and vice versa. For an inferior good, the income and substitution effect work in the opposite directions, an increase in price will lead to...
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...Income and Substitution Effects — A Summary What are Income and Substitution Effects? When the price of q1, p1, changes there are two effects on the consumer. First, the price of q1 relative to the other products (q2, q3, . . . qn) has changed. Second, due to the change in p1, the consumer's real income changes. When we compute the change in the optimal consumption as a result of the price change, we do not usually separate these two effects. Sometimes we might want to separate the effects. The Substitution Effect is the effect due only to the relative price change, controlling for the change in real income. In order to compute it we ask what is the bundle that would make the consumer just as happy as before the price change, but if they had to make their choice faced with the new prices. To find this point we consider a budget line characterized by the new prices but with a level of income such that it is tangent to the initial indifference curve. In the diagram on the next page, the initial consumer equilibrium is at point A where the initial budget line is tangent to the higher indifference curve. Consumption at this point is 11 units of good 1 and 8 units of good 2. After an increase in the price of good 1, the consumer moves to point E, where the new budget line is tangent to the lower indifference curve. Consumption of good 1 has fallen to 4 units while consumption of good 2 has increased to 10 units. The substitution effect is the movement from point A to point G. This...
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...Substitution and Income Effects Paper Bus 640 Managerial Economics Kiva Fowlkes Dr. Magadalena Cutler October 24, 2011 Introduction Consumer Behavior is how consumers allocate their money incomes among goods and services. Each consumer has preferences for certain of the goods and services that are available in the market. Buyers also have a good idea of how much marginal utility they will get from successive units of the various products they might purchase. However, the amount of marginal & total utility that the people will get will be different for every individual in the group because all individuals have different taste and preferences. According to Maurice & Thomas (2011) “marginal utility is an additional or incremental utility. Marginal utility is defined as the change in the total utility that results from unit one unit change in consumption of the commodity within a given period of time”(p. 169). There is an assumption that consumers engage in rational behavior. Therefore one can define a consumer as a rational person, who tries to use his or her money income to derive the greatest amount of satisfaction, or utility, from it. Consumers want to get the most for their money or, to maximize their total utility. Rational behavior also requires that a consumer not spend too much money irrationally by buying tons of items and stock piling them for the future, or starve themselves by buying no food at all. Substitution and Income The income effect...
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...Changes: Income and Substitution Effects 1. Income Effect 2. Substitution Effect 3. Net Effect E. Graphic Portrayal of Income and Substitution Effects F. Rationale for Backward-Bending Supply Curve G. Empirical Evidence H. Elasticity versus Changes in Labor Supply II. APPLYING AND EXTENDING THE MODEL A. Nonparticipants and the Reservation Wage B. Standard Workday 1. Overemployment 2. Underemployment C. Premium Pay versus Straight Time D. Income Maintenance Programs 1. Three Basic Features a. The Income Guarantee or Basic Benefit, B b. The Benefit-Reduction Rate, t c. The Break-Even Level of Income, Yb 2. Illustration 3. Controversy 4. The End of Welfare as an Entitlement WORLD OF WORK 1. Sleep Time Linked to Earnings 2. The Carnegie Conjecture 3. New Overtime Rules 4. The Labor Supply Impact of the Earned Income Tax Credit GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 1. Annual Hours of Work per Employee LEARNING OBJECTIVES After learning the material in Chapter 2 of Contemporary Labor Economics, the student should be able to: 1. graph an indifference map for a person who values leisure and income 2. explain how the slope of the indifference curve relates to the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income 3. explain...
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...Income and substitution effects The inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded results from both an income effect and a substitution effect. A change in price causes a change in both the relative price of the product and the purchasing power of the consumer’s income. Either one of these changes taken in isolation would bring about a change in the quantity demanded. One can think of the total change in quantity demanded brought about by a change in price as being the sum of these two isolated changes. In algebraic terms, we ∆Qd ∆Qd ∆Qd can write: = substitution effect + income effect. Our strategy will be to find the income ∆P ∆P ∆P effect; the substitution effect is then found as the difference between the total effect (the left-hand side of the equation) and the income effect. ∆Qd ∆I ∆Qd Consider, then, the income effect term. It can be rewritten as . income effect = ∆I ∆P ∆P That is, the income effect is the product of two terms. The first term measures the amount by which a change in income changes quantity demanded; the second term measures the amount by which a change in the price changes a consumer’s income, or purchasing power. Multiplying them gives us the income ∆I dollars; each one of these dollars effect: a price increase reduces the consumer’s purchasing power by ∆P ∆Qd reduces the quantity demanded by units. ∆I For example, consider an individual who is currently purchasing four DVDs per month. How might we measure...
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...The income effect is defined as what happens to your purchases as your level of real income changes. In this example, your income has not changed, but your costs have, which decrease your purchasing power - hence your real income. The substitution effect is what happens when prices change in relative terms (one thing gets more expensive and/or another gets more expensive). Note, all goods may have gone up in price due to the cost of fuel for suppliers and/or transportation for you to purchase the good but I took that into account based on the plausibility that it's underlining in the premise of the question (e.g. virtually negligible in C, but cost of gas is still important to answer the question as the health of your vehicle isn't as valuable anymore) A. Income effect - you have less money to do these things, no substitution has occurred. B. Income effect (definite) and substitution (plausible, not definite) - the relative price between cooking your own food and eating out may have changed since eating out you have to add a higher % of the cost of a meal to gas. C. income effect - you have less money to maintain your vehicle and the overall cost incurred from keeping your vehicle maintained has increased. D. substitution effect and income effect - public transportation is seen as an inferior good (as real income rises, its use decreases). Any decrease in income will produce more consumption of an inferior good. Also the relative cost has changed between two...
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...7 TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY The Theory of Consumer Choice 21 Copyright©2004 South-Western The theory of consumer choice addresses the following questions: Do all demand curves slope downward? How do wages affect labor supply? How do interest rates affect household saving? Copyright©2004 South-Western THE BUDGET CONSTRAINT: WHAT THE CONSUMER CAN AFFORD The budget constraint depicts the limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can afford. People consume less than they desire because their spending is constrained, or limited, by their income. Copyright©2004 South-Western THE BUDGET CONSTRAINT: WHAT THE CONSUMER CAN AFFORD The budget constraint shows the various combinations of goods the consumer can afford given his or her income and the prices of the two goods. Copyright©2004 South-Western The Consumer s Budget Constraint Copyright©2004 South-Western THE BUDGET CONSTRAINT: WHAT THE CONSUMER CAN AFFORD The Consumer s Budget Constraint Any point on the budget constraint line indicates the consumer s combination or tradeoff between two goods. For example, if the consumer buys no pizzas, he can afford 500 pints of Pepsi (point B). If he buys no Pepsi, he can afford 100 pizzas (point A). Copyright©2004 South-Western Figure 1 The Consumer s Budget Constraint Quantity of Pepsi 500 B Consumer s budget constraint A 0 100 Quantity of Pizza Copyright©2004 South-Western THE BUDGET CONSTRAINT: WHAT THE CONSUMER CAN AFFORD ...
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...Substitution and income effect has a big role in today society. I will examine how substitution and income affects the gasoline prices. If a person spend $120 for gasoline each month, 4 weeks. Assuming that there has been a price increase of 100% during summer. The cost for gasoline in the next 3 months would be $240 per month if the drive of the sale would stay the same. For the entire summer, 12 weeks the gasoline price will be $720. The average cars usually get 30 miles per gallon of gasoline. During the summer months the cost of gasoline is $6.00 per gallon compare to spring $3.00 per gallon. Thomas and Maurice state that “when the price of a good increases, consumers are worse off” and in this instance, the increase in gasoline prices makes it necessary to adjust the monthly budget (2011 p. 186-187). There are several ways to estimate substitution effect or income effect for affordable gasoline. There will be sacrifices that will have to be made and budgeting accordingly. One of the options the author can choose is not driving so much during the summer months. By doing this the author can save money. This option would be considered income effect or “ the change in the consumption of a good resulting strictly from a change in purchasing power after the price of good changes” (p. 188). For example, the author normally drives to work, 50 miles a day 5 days a week, to the store 5 miles 2 days a week, and into town to spend time with friends 40 miles 3 times a week. Cut backs...
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... 4. The outcome assumes the substitution effect is stronger than the income effect. The statement reflects empirical evidence that the substitution effect strongly dominates the income effect for females, but they roughly offset each other for males. 5. Lauren will choose the high-wage option. She will feel underemployed, but this option will allow her to reach a higher indifference curve (a higher level of utility.) 6. The lump-sum tax increases work effort through a pure income effect; the proportional tax may either increase or reduce work effort depending on the relative strengths of the opposing income and substitution effects. 11. The subsidy is $2400 ($3000 – .3 x $2000). The total income is $4400 ($2000 + the $2400 subsidy.) The break-even level of income is $10,000 ($3000 / .30). 12. HBW’ entails a zero benefit-reduction rate and the weakest disincentives to work. In contrast, HBYW entails a 100% benefit-reduction rate and the strongest disincentives to work. The statement that “the higher the basic benefit and the higher the benefit reduction rate, the weaker the work incentive” is consistent with the above findings. 15. An increase in the minimum wage may either increase or decrease desired work hours for those already in the labor market depending on the relative strengths of the substitution and income effects. The substitution effect of the higher wage will increase desired hours of work while the income effect will decrease desired hours of...
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...The maximizing market basket must satisfy two conditions: 1. It must be located on the budget line. 2. It must give the consumer the most preferred combination of goods and services. For example, Three indifference curves describe a consumer’s preferences for food and clothing. The outer-most curve, U3, yields the greatest amount of satisfaction, curve U2, the next greatest amount, and curve U1, the least. Point B on curve U1, is not the most preferred choice, because a reallocation of income in which more is spent on food and less on clothing can increase the consumer’s satisfaction. Point A – the consumer spends the same amount of money and achieves the increased level of satisfaction associated with indifference curve U2. The baskets located to the right and above indifference curve U2, like the basket associated with Point D on the indifference curve U3, achieved a higher level of satisfaction but cannot be purchased with available income. Therefore, Point A maximizes the consumer’s satisfaction. Satisfaction is maximized when: * The marginal rate of satisfaction (of F for C) is equal to the price ratio. * The marginal benefit (benefit associated with the consumption of one additional unit of food) is equal to the marginal cost (the cost of the additional unit of food). Marginal benefit is measured by the MRS. Point A – equals to ½ (the magnitude of the slope of the indifference curve), which implies that the consumer...
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...Economists often separate the impact of a price change into two components, the substitution effect and the income effect. The substitution effect involves the substitution of good x1 for good x2 or vice-versa due to a change in relative prices of the two goods. The income effect results from an increase or decrease in the consumer’s real income or purchasing power as a result of the price change. The sums of these two effects are called the price effect. Sir John Hicks (1904-1989) awarded the Nobel Laureate in Economics (with Kenneth J. Arrow) in 1972 for work on general equilibrium theory and welfare economics was the founder of the income compensated demand curve, we are going to look at the hicks income compensated demand curve and why it differs from the Marshallian demand function (named after Alfred Marshall) (26 July 1842 – 13 July 1924) was one of the most influential economists of his time. The Compensated Demand Curve Definition: the compensated demand curve is a demand curve that ignores the income effect of a price change, only taking into account the substitution effect. To do this, utility is held constant from the change in the price of the good. We will graphically derive the compensated demand curve from indifference curves and budget constraints by incorporating the substitution and income effects, and use the compensated demand curve to find the compensating variation (refers to the amount of additional money an agent would need to reach its initial...
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...More hours worked earn higher incomes but necessitate a cut in the amount of leisure that workers enjoy. Consequently there are two effects on the amount of desired labor supplied due to a change in the real wage rate. As, for example, the real wage rate rises the opportunity cost of leisure increases. This tends to cause workers to supply more labor (the "substitution effect"). However, as the real wage rate rises, workers earn a higher income for a given number of hours. If leisure is a normal good - the demand for it increases as income increases - this increase in income will tend to cause workers to supply less labor (the "income effect"). If the "substitution effect" is stronger than the "income effect" then the labor supply curve will be upward sloping and vice versa. [pic] The Labour Supply curve • If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, the labour supply curve (diagram to the left) will slope upwards to the right, as it does at point E for example. This individual will continue to increase his supply of labour services as the wage rate increases up to point F where he is working HF hours (each period of time). Beyond this point he will start to reduce the amount of labour hours he supplies (for example at point G he has reduced his work hours to HG). Where the supply curve is sloping upwards to the right (positive wage elasticity of labour supply), the substitution effect is less than the income effect. Where it slopes upwards to the...
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...y M/py O = (x*,y*) 0 x • Property 1: MRSC = MRSE, or - Δ y / Δ x = p x / p y (tangency condition; slope of IC equals slope of budget line). • Property 2: p x x * + p y y * = M (all income is spent). 2 Decomposing the Total Change in Demand. y O1 0 O2 x • The move from O1 to O2 is the total effect of the price change. • Hicks’ method of decomposition (compensating variation). • Total effect = net substitution effect + net income effect. 3 The Net Substitution Effect. y O1 O3 0 O2 x • The move O1 to O3 shows the net substitution effect. • For strictly convex preferences… • Net substitution effect is negative: (Δx*/Δpx)|Δwelfare=0 < 0 • x and y are net substitutes: (Δy*/Δpx)|Δwelfare=0 > 0 4 The Net Income Effect for Normal Goods. y O1 O3 O2 0 x • The move O3 to O2 is the net income effect. • It isolates the effect of enhanced purchasing power, factoring out the net substitution effect, caused by the price change. • In the example above, good x is normal, and so the net income effect reinforces the net substitution effect. 5 The Net Income Effect for Inferior Goods. y x*2b < x*1 < x*2a < x*3 O2b O2a O1 0 O3 x • Moving from O3 to O2a or to O2a are net income effects associated with x being an inferior good. • If O2a is the new optimum, then x obeys the law of demand. • If O2b is the new optimum, then x is a Giffen good. 6 Deriving a Demand Schedule...
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...normal good is derived with the help of substitution and income effect, we need to understand what is meant by normal good and the concept of indifference curve. Normal good is that type of good that an increase in income results in an increase in the quantity demanded. Indifference curve is a line which unites all combinations of two products which give the same level of satisfaction (Wall, 2007). For this reason we take 2 products such as bananas and apples to show in which combinations consumer is indifferent (See Figure 1). In points A, B, C and D consumer gets the same level of utility. Product X Product Y Bananas Apples 8 30 12 17 16 11 20 8 Figure 1 An Indifference curve showing all of the combinations of two products (bananas and apples) for which a consumer is indifferent. Indifference curve is convex because consumer gets less utility with each extra product consumed and thus will be willing to sacrifice less amount of apple to banana. This is called the law of diminishing marginal utility. However, indifference curve does not show which combination will be the best for consumer. In order to find the best choice for consumer, income constraint and product’s price need to be analyzed. (Sloman, 2006) Budget line helps in determining the optimal choice by showing different combinations of two products provided the whole income is spent on these two products (See Figure...
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...1.1 Derivation of demand curve from substitution effect. We have to connect consumer’s optimal bundle purchase to their demand curve. As we know, when deriving demand curve, all other things kept constant, except the price and quantity demanded of the good. In indifference curve analysis, consumers’ budget is fixed price of the other good hold unchanged. As can can be seen from graph, there are three budget constraints, all starting form the same on the Good A axis. All this budget constraints are drawn in response to price decrease of Good B. As noticed, when the price of Good B is P(H) consumer willing to buy ten units. When price goes down to the P(M), consumers purchasing power increases and buys 35 units. And goes the same. Now, we construct the demand curve for a Good B with help of the price and quantity pair of the good. And will be look like as following graph. 1.2 Derivation of demand curve from income effect. As we know from microeconomics course increase in income for normal will result in shift of the demand curve to the right. We can derive it from indifferance curve analysis to show this fact. The graph below illustrates three different budget constraints, each of them has a deifferent income level (YL, YM , YH). As the price of both goods unchanged(same) we find find the optimal consumption bundle. Now, we have to draw demand curve for Good B. The key point here is prce of Good B has not changed. Then, we would come accross to the following graph with...
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