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Influence Government Policy on Tariff Duties and Quotas on Supply and Demand

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Pengertian Supply dan Demand Supply (permintaan) adalah keinginan konsumen membeli suatu barang pada berbagai tingkat harga selama periode waktu tertentu sedangkan demand (penawaran atau permintaan) adalah jumlah barang yang produsen ingin tawarkan atau jual pada berbagai tingkat harga selama satu periode tertentu. Beberapa faktor yang dapat mempengaruhi permintaan suatu barang, antara lain: harga barang itu sendiri, harga barang lain yang terkait, tingkat pendapatan per kapita, selera atau kebiasaan, jumlah penduduk, perkiraan harga di masa mendatang, distribusi pendapatan dan usaha-usaha produsen untuk meningkatkan penjualan. Selain itu terdapat faktor-faktor yang menentukan tingkat penawaran adalah harga jual barang yang bersangkutan, serta faktor-faktor lainnya yang dapat disederhanakan sebagai faktor non harga seperti harga faktor produksi, biaya produksi, teknologi produksi, jumlah pedagang atau penjual, tujuan perusahaan dan kebijakan pemerintah. Pada laporan ini, saya akan menganalisa dampak dari kebijakan pemerintah yang mempengaruhi permintaan dan penawaran terhadap suatu barang di negaranya.

Kebijakan Pemerintah Kegagalan menentukan harga suatu barang di pasar, seringkali menuntut intervensi pemerintah. Namun yang harus diperhatikan adalah tidak semua intervensi pemerintah memberikan hasil yang baik, walaupun tujuannya baik. Banyak faktor yang menyebabkannya. Salah satu masalah terbesar yang dihadapi pemerintah dalam menentukan kebijaksanaan adalah adanya konflik antara tujuan-tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Misalnya ada konflik antara tujuan efisiensi dengan pemerataan. Agar harga rurnah dapat terjangkau rakyat kecil dan berpenghasilan rendah, pemerintah memberikan subsidi. Tetapi pemberian subsidi itu cenderung mengorbankan efisiensi, karena uang subsidi bisa dialokasikan ke sektor-sektor yang lebih produktif.
Tujuan dilakukannya intervensi atau campur tangan pemerintah adalah: a) Menjamin agar kesamaan hak bagi setiap individu dapat tetap terwujud dan eksploitasi dapat dihindarkan serta menyediakan barang publik (public goods) untuk meningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat. b) Mengawasi kegiatan-kegiatan perusahaan, terutama perusahaan­perusahaan besar yang dapat mempengaruhi pasar, agar mereka tidak menjalankan praktik-praktik monopoli yang merugikan. c) Mengontrol harga agar melindungi konsumen atau produsen. Bentuk kontrol harga yang paling umum digunakan adalah penetapan harga dasar (floor price) dan harga maksimum (ceiling price) serta mengatur jumlah kuota barang. d) Mengatur pajak dan subtitusi barang. Dilihat dari satu sisi, pajak memberatkan karena membuat harga barang menjadi lebih mahal. Namun di sisi lain, pajak dibutuhkan sebagai sumber penerimaan negara untuk membiayai fungsi-fungsinya, khususnya redistribusi pendapatan dan sebagai alat stabilisasi ekonomi. Hanya saja keputusan penentuan pajak harus mempertimbangkan elastisitas permintaan dan penawaran. Jika tidak, tujuan-tujuan yang ditargetkan tidak tercapai.

e) Menentukan tarif dan kuota. Pemerintah mengatur tarif dan kuota khususnya untuk harga barang yang akan di ekspor maupun barang yang akan di impor.
Pengaruh Tarif dan Kuota terhadap Supply dan Demand Dalam sistem perekonomian yang terbuka (melakukan transaksi dengan perekonomian luar), maka harga barang yang berlaku adalah harga internasional. Yang menjadi persoalan adalah bila harga domestik lebih tinggi daripada harga dunia. Sebab dengan mekanisme pasar bebas, terpaksa dilakukan impor untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dalam negeri. Walaupun dari sudut konsumen hal ini menguntungkan, tetapi demi melindungi industri dalam negeri, pemerintah menempuh kebijakan protektif dengan memberlakukan tarif (pajak impor) dan kuota impor (pembatasan jumlah impor).

[pic] Pw merupakan harga barang yang tetapkan internasional (harga intemasional). Qso dan Qd0 merupakan jumlah impor yang terjadi, maka tingkat harga internasional Pw sejumlah Qd0-Qs0 unit. Untuk melindungi industri dalam negeri, pemerintah menetapkan tarif sebesar T per unit impor. Harga dalam negeri meningkat menjadi P*, hasilnya impor akan berkurang menjadi Qd1-Qs1 unit. Bagi produsen domestik, kebijakan ini menambahkan keuntungan sebesar luas trapesium a. Tetapi konsumen domestik mengalami kerugian sebesar a+b+c+F. Sedangkan F merupakan penerimaan pajak pemerintah. Jika pemerintah memberlakukan kuota impor, F merupakan keuntungan yang diperoleh produsen asing. Sehingga kerugian domestik neto adalah b+c+F.

Aplikasinya pada kasus: Bea Impor Kacang Kedelai di Indonesia Kedelai merupakan bahan pangan yang penting bagi masyarakat Indonesia. Selama tahun 1990an, terdapat penurunan produksi kedelai yang disebabkan turunnya luas area dan relatifnya produktivitas kedelai. Disisi lain, terdapat peningkatan konsumsi kedelai yang cukup besar baik permintaan sebagai bahan baku produk olahan maupun permintaan sebagai bahan baku industri bahan makanan ternak. Pada tahun 2000 sebesar 41% dari konsumsi kedelai Indonesia berasal dari kedelai impor sedangkan tahun 2003 sebesar 29% dan diperkirakan tahun 2004 menurun karena terjadi peningkatan produksi kedelai dalam negeri. Dampak perubahan output dan harga pada industri kedelai akan mempengaruhi ketersediaan dan kemampuan masyarakat untuk membeli produk tersebut. Perubahan kebijakan pemerintah setelah tahun 1998 dimana pemerintah Indonesia setuju untuk menderegulasi beberapa kebijakan perdagangan, diantaranya menyangkut kedelai. Impor kedelai yang semula merupakan monopoli pemerintah, sejak 1 Januari 1998 bebas diimpor dengan menggunakan lisensi impor. Tarif impor yang semula 20% turun menjadi 5% pada tahun 2003. Konsumsi kedelai yang juga semakin meningkat yang disebabkan peningkatan jumlah penduduk dan konsumsi per kapita ternyata tidak dapat dipenuhi oleh produksi dalam negeri. Hal ini menyebabkan impor kedelai semakin meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. Dibukanya pasar bebas mengakibatkan komoditi kedelai Indonesia kalah bersaing dengan kedelai impor. Besarnya ketergantungan Indonesia akan kedelai impor (sekitar 41 % tahun 1999 dan 15% tahun 2004 (angka sementara), adalah mengkhawatirkan mengingat pentingnya kedelai sebagai bahan makanan dan pakan penghasil protein. Kebijakan pengendalian impor harus diperhitungkan secara seksama sehingga tidak hanya menguntungkan produsen tapi juga konsumen. Upaya pemerintah untuk memenuhi permintaan kedelai merupakan awal munculnya kebijakan impor kedelai di Indonesia. Selama periode 1978-2008, volume impor kedelai meningkat sebesar 14,56% per tahun. Impor kedelai cenderung meningkat, kondisi ini semakin memperlebar kesenjangan antara produksi dan konsumsi. Sehingga tidak heran jika Indonesia menjadi salah satu negara pengimpor kedelai di dunia dengan pangsa yang cukup besar, selain Belanda, Jepang, Korea Selatan dan Jerman. Selain melakukan impor kedelai, pemerintah juga terus mengupayakan untuk meningkatkan produksi kedelai dalam negeri. Hal ini juga bertujuan untuk mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap kedelai impor. Pada Tahun 2006 ketergantungan Indonesia terhadap kedelai impor sangat tinggi yaitu lebih dari 60 persen. Berdasar data dari Adisarwanto (2008), dalam jangka waktu 11 tahun (1992-2002), telah terjadi selisih harga yang cukup besar antara harga kedelai impor dengan harga kedelai dalam negeri. Perbedaan yang tertinggi terjadi pada tahun 1993 dan tahun 1994, yakni ketika harga kedelai impor jauh lebih murah sekitar 75-76% dari harga kedelai lokal. Setelah itu selisih harga mengalami penurunan pada tahun 2002, yakni selisih 2%. Semakin kecilnya selisih harga tersebut menandakan bahwa tingkat harga di dalam negeri tertekan untuk turun. Oleh karena itu, terjadi penurunan harga kedelai lokal dari Rp. 2.643/kg pada tahun 1998 menjadi Rp. 2.475/kg pada tahun 2002. Namun pada bulan Januari 2008, harga pada saat panen untuk kedelai yang ditanam pada awal musim hujan 2007/2008 mengalami kenaikan dari Rp. 5.500/kg menjadi Rp. 7.500/kg, yakni bersamaan dengan kenaikan harga kedelai dunia. Pada tahun 2008, pemerintah menerapkan kebijakan menghapus bea masuk (BM) impor kedelai dari 10 persen menjadi nol persen. Langkah ini ditempuh untuk mengatasi keterbatasan pasok kedelai di dalam negeri yang sebanyak 70 persen atau 1,3 juta ton per tahun masih diimpor. Hal ini semakin mengakibatkan harga kedelai impor jauh lebih murah dari harga kedelai lokal (Suara Karya, 15 Januari 2008). Harga rata-rata kedelai pada bulan Agustus 2009 sebesar Rp. 7.849,-/kg untuk kedelai impor sedangkan kedelai lokal sebesar Rp. 8.654,-/kg (Departemen Perdagangan, 2009). Melonjaknya harga kedelai akibat pasokan yang terbatas menjadi bukti bahwa berbagai program dan upaya yang dirancang beberapa tahun lalu tidak efektif. Lonjakan harga kedelai yang berakibat pada meningkatnya biaya produksi tahu dan tempe tersebut sebenarnya sudah berulang kali terjadi. Selama lonjakan itu pula, belum pernah ada solusi tepat dalam produksi dan tata niaga untuk mengatasi lonjakan harga kedelai. Ketergantungan Indonesia pada kedelai impor sangat tinggi. Berdasarkan data Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) 2011, produksi kedelai lokal hanya 851.286 ton atau 29 persen dari total. Indonesia harus mengimpor kedelai 2.087.986 ton untuk memenuhi 71 persen kebutuhan kedelai dalam negeri. Pada 2012, total kebutuhan kedelai nasional 2,2 juta ton. Jumlah tersebut akan diserap untuk pangan atau perajin 83,7 persen; industri kecap, tauco, dan lainnya 14,7 persen; benih 1,2 persen; dan untuk pakan 0,4 persen. Impor kedelai terbesar Indonesia dari Amerika Serikat dengan jumlah 1.847.900 ton pada 2011. Kemudian, impor dari Malaysia 120.074 ton, Argentina 73.037 ton, Uruguay 16.825 ton, dan Brasil 13.550 ton. Anomali cuaca di Amerika Serikat dan Amerika Selatan menyebabkan pasokan kedelai pun turun dan harganya melonjak. Harga kedelai internasional pada minggu ke-3 Juli 2012 mencapai 622 dolar AS per ton atau Rp 8.345 per kilogram (kg) untuk harga impor di dalam negeri. Harga ini jauh lebih tinggi jika dibandingkan dengan harga tertinggi pada 2011, yaitu bulan Februari sekitar 513 dolar AS per ton atau harga paritas impor di dalam negeri sekitar Rp 6.536 per kg.
Analisa:
Menggunakan data tahun 2011 saya mengasumsikan bahwa pemerintah tindak menghapus bea masuk impor kedelai, dan menetapkan harga impor kedelai sebesar 10%, harga impor kedelai dalam negeri sebesar 6.536 maka harga sebenarnya adalah 5.883. Tingkat impor yang terjadi yaitu sebesar 71% (2.087.986), maka nilai Qd0 atau permintaanya sebesar 605.516. Angka tersebut diperoleh dari A x 71% = 2.087.986), maka A bernilai 605.516. Dengan asusmsi adanya bea impor maka produsen domestik menjadi 851.286 dan meningkat 29%nya sebesar 1.482.971.
Maka, keuntungan yang diperoleh produsen asing:
F = Qd1 – Qs1 = 1.482.971 – 851.286 = 631.685
[pic]

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...materials that serve a universal need the world over such as market for commodities (aluminum, oil, and wheat), industrial products (commercial jet aircraft), computer software, and financial asses Firms follow eachother around the world so greater uniformity replaces diversity Globalization of production: sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production (i.e. labor, energy, capital) Vizio and the market for flat panel tvs Production for flat panel displays migrates around the globe to low-cost locations. US consumers have benefitted from the falling prices of flat panel TVs Taken advantage of globally dispersed supply...

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