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Int1 Required Review Notes

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Cells
Biology- the study of life and living organisms
Living- uses energy, maintains itself, capability to reproduce, and development/growth; also part of a population that evolve (each generation differs from the ones before and after)
Cells- basic unit of life
Prokaryotic- lacking nucleus
Bacteria
“archaea”
Eukaryotic- nucleus
Plants
Animals
Fungi
Eukaryotic
Nucleus- surrounded by a double membrane; contains DNA
Linear chromosomes
Cytoplasm contains everything outside of the nucleus
Cytoskeleton crisscrosses the cell- holds shape and allows for cell movement
Cytoplasm contains organelles- each plays a role in the functioning of the cell
Organelles are surrounded by membranes
Ribosomes- assemble proteins, only organelle not surrounded by membrane; some are suspended in cytoplasm and some are attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- assembles proteins for the cell membrane or outside of the cell
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- assembles membranes
Golgi Apparatus- “post office of the cell”
Lysosomes- “garbage disposal of the cell” eats organic waste/ damaged organelles; some used to destroy bacteria
Vacuoles- sacs surrounded by membrane used to store/expel nutrients or other materials such as pigments and hormones.
Mitochondria- organelles that break down molecules to obtain energy for the cell
Chloroplasts- plant cell structure that captures energy from sunlight to build molecules
Cell membrane- defines cell’s boundary and controls what goes in and out of the cell (phospholipid bilayer)
..................Column Break..................Processes of Cells
Diffusion
Some molecules freely pass through the cell membrane (gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide).
Some molecules cross the cell membrane by the use of pores (like water).
Diffusion- the tendency for molecules to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (direct effect of the second law of thermodynamics)
Passive transport- requires no energy
Osmosis- a type of diffusion involving water moving from a high concentration area to a low concentration area.
Facilitated Diffusion
Many of the substances that cells need (ions and molecules like proteins and carbohydrates) cannot pass freely through the cell membrane
Carrier Proteins- membrane proteins that help molecules move across the cell membrane
This system is like a key and lock- the molecule must match the carrier protein’s receptor to be let in.
Facilitated Diffusion- use of carrier proteins to move molecules down a concentration gradient
Passive transport-requires no energy
Active Transport
Sometimes carrier proteins move molecules against the concentration gradient (from area of low to area of high)
The second rule of thermodynamics dictates that that energy is required
Active transport
Endocytosis/Exocytosis
Endocytosis-a portion of the cell membrane folds inward and pinches off, enclosing the material within a vesicle in the cell.
Exocytosis- a vesicle fuses its membrane with the cell membrane and dups the contents outside of the cell.
Cellular Communication
Cells of multicellular organisms communicate with one another in order to coordinate their activities. They send “messages” in the form of chemical molecules.
Short distance travel- special structures allow messages to pass directly from one cell to an adjacent cell by use of special “doorways”
In animal cells the “doorways” are called gap junctions
In plant cells the “doorways” are called plasmodesmata
Long distance travel- molecules travel to target cells through the bloodstream or other medium.
Photosynthesis-
Process organisms use to convert sun light energy into organic molecules. Almost all life on earth is directly or indirectly dependent on photosynthesis.
Carbon Dioxide, water and sunlight go in, glucose and oxygen come out.
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of cells
Chlorophyll- pigment that absorbs light in chloroplast
Electron transport chain is the process taking place inside the chloroplast
Life span of a cell- in humans it is estimated that the average cell can divide between 40 and 60 times before dying
..................Column Break..................Genetics
Genes
Genes- determine trains in organisms, section of DNA that contains instructions for making a protein
Genotype- genetic makeup of the organism
Phenotype- observable traits of an organism
DNA
In Eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell.
Chromosomes consist of a long piece of DNA wrapped around a histone (small protein).
Keeping DNA wrapped around a histone keeps it from getting tangled as one strand of DNA in a cell can be up to 7 ft long
Diploid- cell containing two matched chromosome (23 pairs in humans)
Haploid- cell containing only one kind of each chromosome (23 chromosomes)
Sex cells like egg cells and sperm cells
Sex chromosomes- determine sex (in humans one pair) XX or XY
Autosomal chromosomes- all chromosomes except sex chromosomes (22 pairs)
DNA Replication
DNA has to be copied in order for cells to divide and reproduce
Replication is the process by which DNA is copied
New DNA is always identical to the original
Transcription and Translation
Transcription- DNA is used as a template for building a molecule of RNA
Translation- RNA molecules used to assemble protein
Page Break Meiosis
Meiosis- cell division used to make haploid cells like sperm and egg cells.
When the two cells fuse at fertilization, the two haploid cells become a diploid.
Two-stage process
Meiosis I- original cell divides into two cells that have 23 matching pairs
Meiosis II- two cells produced during Meiosis I split again producing four haploid cells (containing 23 chromosomes each)
Mendelian Genetics-
Discovered dominant and recessive traits
Dominant- only has to be expressed in one parent to be present in offspring
Recessive-must be present in both parents to be present in offspring
Other modes of inheritance
Polygenetic traits- traits that are determined by more than one gene
Pleiotropic- single gene responsible for multiple traits
Linked genes- genes that are often inherited together
Often genes inherited together are close together on the chromosomal allele.
Sex-linked traits- traits inherited by sex chromosomes.
Males more frequently affected because they only have one X chromosome
Human Genome
Genome- total genetic content of an organism.
Human Genome Project- completed in 2003, sequenced entire human genome

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