Notes about Vygotsky

Taken from http://golum.riv.csu.edu.au/~srelf/SOTE/EEL403/2HDT.htm#Sociocultural

Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is possibly the theory given the most credence at present. Vygotsky believed the child’s culture and their interactions with others is significant in their overall development – especially in relation to cognitive development.

In particular, Vygotsky views a child’s interactions with adults and more able peers as key to their overall development. He believed that a child would internalise dialogues with others and use this information to guide actions and acquisition of new skills on later occasions. From Vygotsky’s perspective learning is dependent on support from adults.

Key to Vygotsky’s theory are the notions of private speech, scaffolding and the zone of proximal development. Key ideas

❖ the child is viewed as an active seeker of knowledge;

❖ the child and environment interact together enabling cognitive development in a culturally adaptive way;

❖ the mind is perceived to be socially constructed;

❖ the child is born with basic attentional, perceptual and memory capacities;

❖ development occurs as a direct result of contact with the environment;

❖ child as self communicator – leads to higher order thinking;

❖ language and thought develop independently, but eventually merge and interact.

Private speech

Vygotsky believed that in order to learn children must speak to themselves in a self guiding and directing way- initially aloud and later internally. He believed that as children develop and become more competent in a particular area, they begin to internalise this speech and gradually decrease its use. Vygotsky believed that private speech is the foundation for all higher order thinking processes.

Just as we see children talking themselves through learning tasks on a daily basis, we too use forms of private speech in our daily lives. How many times have you spoken these words aloud “Now where did I put the car keys”…., “Now I must remember to…..” Vygotsky believed that children's use of such talk in daily learning tasks was particularly significant in working with difficult concepts and in teaching children with disabilities.

Zone of proximal development

If you recall from our earlier discussion, it was stated that Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory discusses cognitive development as dependent on interaction with adults. Key to this social interaction is the notion of the Zone of Proximal Development. The zone of proximal development refers to the tasks a child is unable to complete alone, but is able to complete with the assistance of an adult. That is the teacher pitches a learning experience for a specific child at a level just beyond his/her current level of performance. In doing this, the child and the teacher engage in cooperative dialogues to enhance learning that the child is able to recall privately when completing a similar task/activity independently. Therefore the child takes in the discussion of the task/activity and uses it as private speech on later occasions. [pic]

Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s notion of scaffolding directly relates to his notions of Private Speech and the Zone of Proximal Development. In order for a child to learn new concepts or skills the teacher must provide scaffolds for the learning experience. These scaffolds refer to the changes in social support over the teaching of a concept. Scaffolding is directly linked to the personal needs of the individual. Like scaffolding on a building, supports are withdrawn as individual competence develops. Scaffolding may include physical presence and prompts along with more specific metacognitive strategies.

Educational implications

- Child as an active participant in the learning process.

- Importance of individual difference.

- Assist children in discovery.

- Teachers should guide learning through explanation, demonstration and verbal prompts.

- Tailor lessons to each child's zone of proximal development.

- Early childhood – promote teacher/child and child/child interactions.

- Promote fantasy play.

- Within the learning environment focus on literacy activities.

- Use prompts, reminders, increase independence, give information, use cooperative learning and reciprocal teaching strategies.

Notes taken from

http://www.sk.com.br/sk-vygot.html

VYGOTSKY & LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Ricardo Schütz Last revision: March 3, 2002

A word devoid of thought is a dead thing, and a thought unembodied in words remains a shadow.

Words play a central part not only in the development of thought but in the historical growth of consciousness as a whole. A word is a microcosm of human consciousness.

Thought undergoes many changes as it turns into speech. It does not merely find expression in speech; it finds its reality and form.

Thought is not merely expressed in words; it comes into existence through them.

... the speech structures mastered by the child become the basic structures of his thinking.

The structure of the language one habitually uses influences the way he perceives his environment ...

|Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) studied at the University of Moscow to become a teacher of literature. His first research as a|
|young scholar focused on artistic creation. It was only from 1924 on that his career changed dramatically as he started working in|
|the areas of developmental psychology, education and psychopathology. He pursued these interests at a highly productive pace until|
|he died of tuberculosis in 1934 at a very young age (Murray Thomas, 1993). In his brief life-span he acquired vast knowledge not |
|only of psychology but also of the social sciences, philosophy, linguistics and literature. |
|Due to different factors, including those related to the particular political relationship between the United States and the |
|Soviet Union, Vygotsky's work remained unknown in the Americas for decades. When the Cold War ended, the incredible wealth of |
|Vygotsky's work began to be revealed. Nowadays, it is difficult to exclude Vygotsky from any serious discussion of learning |
|processes. |
|The origins of thought and language according to Vygotsky |
|Like in animals, thought and speech have different roots in humankind, thought being nonverbal and language being nonintellectual |
|in an early stage. But their development lines are not parallel - they cross again and again. At a certain moment around the age |
|of two, the curves of development of thought and speech, until then separate, meet and join to initiate a new form of behavior. |
|That is when thought becomes verbal and speech becomes rational. A child first seems to use language for superficial social |
|interaction, but at some point this language goes underground to become the structure of the child's thinking. |
|Word meaning and concept formation |
|... a problem must arise that cannot be solved otherwise than through the formation of new concepts. (Vygotsky, 1962:55) |
|Once the child realizes that everything has a name, each new object presents the child with a problem situation, and he solves the|
|problem by naming the object. When he lacks the word for the new object, he demands it from adults. The early word-meanings thus |
|acquired will be the embryos of concept formation. |
|Vygotsky's social constructivism |
|According to Vygotsky, all fundamental cognitive activities take shape in a matrix of social history and form the products of |
|sociohistorical development (Luria, I 976). That is, cognitive skills and patterns of thinking are not primarily determined by |
|innate factors, but are the products of the activities practiced in the social institutions of the culture in which the individual|
|grows up. Consequently, the history of the society in which a child is reared and the child's personal history are crucial |
|determinants of the way in which that individual will think. In this process of cognitive development, language is a crucial tool |
|for determining how the child will learn how to think because advanced modes of thought are transmitted to the child by means of |
|words (Murray Thomas, 1993). |
|Thought and language, and intellectual development |
|To Vygotsky, a clear understanding of the interrelations between thought and language is necessary for the understanding of |
|intellectual development. Language is not merely an expression of the knowledge the child has acquired. There is a fundamental |
|correspondence between thought and speech in terms of one providing resource to the other; language becoming essential in forming |
|thought and determining personality features. |
|Zone of proximal development |
|One essential tenet in Vygotsky's theory is the notion of the existence of what he called the "zone of proximal development". Zone|
|of proximal development is the difference between the child's capacity to solve problems on his own, and his capacity to solve |
|them with assistance. In other words, the actual developmental level refers to all the functions and activities that a child can |
|perform on his own, independently without the help of anyone else. On the other hand, the zone of proximal development includes |
|all the functions and activities that a child or a learner can perform only with the assistance of someone else. The person in |
|this scaffolding process, providing non-intrusive intervention, could be an adult (parent, teacher, caretaker, language |
|instructor) or another peer who has already mastered that particular function. |
|An interesting analogy comes to my mind when I think of zone of proximal development. In mechanics, when you adjust the timing of |
|an engine, you set it slightly ahead of the highest compression moment in order to maximize power and performance. |
|Vygotsky's zone of proximal development has many implications for those in the educational milieu. One of them is the idea that |
|human learning presupposes a specific social nature and is part of a process by which children grow into the intellectual life of |
|those around them (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Vygotsky (1978), an essential feature of learning is that it awakens a variety of|
|internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is in the action of interacting with people in his |
|environment and in cooperation with his peers. |
|Therefore, when it comes to language learning, the authenticity of the environment and the affinity between its participants are |
|essential elements to make the learner feel part of this environment. These elements are rarely predominant in conventional |
|classrooms. |
|Vygotsky's influence on Krashen's second language acquisition theory |
|Although Vygotsky and Krashen come from entirely different backgrounds, the application of their theories to second language |
|teaching produces similarities. |
|Influence or coincidence, Krashen's input hypothesis resembles Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development. According to |
|the input hypothesis, language acquisition takes place during human interaction in an environment of the foreign language when the|
|learner receives language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a |
|learner is at a stage 'i', then maximum acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to |
|level 'i + 1'. |
|Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis also seems to have been influenced by Vygotsky. Although Vygotsky speaks of |
|internalization of language while Krashen uses the term language acquisition, both are based on a common assumption: interaction |
|with other people. The concept of acquisition as defined by Krashen and its importance in achieving proficiency in foreign |
|languages, can be a perfect application of Vygotsky's view of cognitive development as taking place in the matrix of the person's |
|social history and being a result of it. |
|Even the distinct concepts in Krashen's acquisition theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory are not conflicting but |
|complementary in providing resources for language teaching methodology. |
|By explaining human language development and cognitive development, Vygotsky's theory serves as a strong foundation for the modern|
|trends in applied linguistics. It lends support to less structured and more natural, communicative and experiential approaches and|
|points to the importance of early real-world human interaction in foreign language learning. |

Notes from

http://www.phys.canterbury.ac.nz/nzip/educ/arc/_COOPvygotsky.html

A brief theoretical Aside:
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930's, is most often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supports a discovery model of learning. This type of model places the teacher in an active role while the students' mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of discovery.
Back to Teaching Strategy List

[pic]

Vygotsky's Three Principal Assumptions

Making Meaning

❖ The community plays a central role.

❖ The people around the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world.

Tools for Cognitive Development

❖ The type and quality of these tools determine the pattern and rate of development.

❖ The tools may include: important adults to the student, culture, language.

The Zone of Proximal Development

❖ According to Vygotsky's theory, problem solving skills of tasks can be placed into three categories. These are as follows:

• (a) those able to be performed independently by the student;

• (b) those that cannot be performed even with help; and

• (c) those that fall between the two extremes, the tasks that can be performed with help from others.

This is what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal Development (the ZPG) (What a lousy name!!)

❖ Targeting instruction in small groups to this zone allows optimal learning to occur.

Vygotskian Principles in the Classroom

❖ Learning and development is a social and collaborative activity that cannot be "taught" to anyone. It is up to the student to construct his or her own understanding in his or her own mind. It is during this process that the teacher acts as a facilitator.

❖ The zone of proximal development can be used to design appropriate situations during which the student can be provided with the appropriate support for optimal learning.

❖ When providing appropriate situations, one must take into consideration that learning should take place in meaningful contexts, preferably the context in which the knowledge is to be applied.

❖ Out of school experiences should be related to school experiences. Pictures, news clips, and personal stories incorporated into classroom activities provides the students with a since of oneness between their community and learning.

ie: learning needs to contain small group experiences. Meaningful contexts need to be used. Problems should include those too difficult for individuals to solve, but within the capability of he group.
The context rich problems described seek to provide this sort of challenge.