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The purpose of this paper is to discuss and analyze images, anxieties, and attitudes towards mathematics in order to foster meaningful teaching and learning of mathematics. Images of mathematics seem to be profoundly shaped by epistemological, philosophical, and pedagogical perspectives of one who views mathematics either as priori or a posteriori, absolute or relative, and concrete or nominal. These images, as perceived by an individual can play a significant role in the development of attitudes towards mathematics in the long run. Images of mathematics can have possible negative and positive impacts on teaching and learning of mathematics with the subsequent development of attitudes toward mathematics as positive or negative and also associated mathematics anxiety. A theoretical model with different combinations of images, anxieties, and attitudes toward mathematics can be a helpful tool to develop an understanding of the different relationships among them. Some pedagogical implications can be drawn from these relationships.
Key Words: Image of mathematics, Mathematics anxiety, Attitude toward mathematics, Affect in mathematics education Introduction
How do students perceive mathematics in schools? What are different images of mathematics that students perceive? How these images impact their learning? What is math anxiety? What are the causes of math anxiety?
What is the relation of image of mathematics as perceived by students with math anxiety? What are different attitudes toward mathematics? How these attitudes impact learning mathematics? How images, anxieties and attitudes are related to each other? How do they form the personality of students in terms of mathematics? There are a number of past studies on images, anxieties, and attitudes towards mathematics, but none of them clearly discuss the relationship or interaction among them. In this paper I would like to bring them together with a model and seek to understand the impact of different combinations in teaching and learning mathematics.
It seems that the number of dissertations and published articles dealing with attitude towards mathematics increased geometrically since Feierabend’s (1960) report “Review of research on psychological problems in mathematics education” (Aiken, 1970). This shows a growing interest of mathematics education researchers in the area of attitudes toward mathematics. In this context, mathematics educators have considered the connection between students’ attitudes toward mathematics, and their achievement in the subject as one of the major concerns (Ma & Kishor, 1997). Ma and Kishor further stated that “the research literature, however, has failed to provide consistent findings regarding the relationship between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics” (p. 27). This discrepancy of result might have stemmed from differences in research method, context, and other intervening factors. Some researchers (e.g., Deighan, 1971) demonstrated that there is a low correlation (below 0.5) between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics; however, other researchers (e.g., Kloosterman, 1991) demonstrated that the attitudinal variables are significant indicators of math achievement. This paper is an attempt to analyze the images of mathematics in relation to anxieties and attitudes toward mathematics, and their effects on teaching and learning mathematics.
From a psychological perspective, there is a general myth that mathematics is an enigmatic subject. Some people claim that they like mathematics while others claim that they dislike mathematics. Some people are even scared of simple mathematics while others enjoy challenging problem solving in mathematics. The people who

* Corresponding Author: Shashidhar Belbase, belbaseshashi@gmail.com, sbelbase@uwyo.eduIJEMST (International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology) 231 claim that they like mathematics often choose mathematics in their college study, while those who prefer to say they dislike mathematics view mathematics as a difficult subject (Sam, 1999) and most possibly they discontinue mathematics in higher education.
According to different perspectives, mathematics can be a battle, a mountain, or a bridge, and mathematics can be viewed differently in terms of inherent characteristics as perceived by teachers and students (Sterenberg,
2008). These metaphorical images of mathematics held by students and teachers play a significant role in developing beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics in terms of having favorable or disfavorable opinions.
These images reveal that relationships and meanings are produced metaphorically through a transfer between domains of mathematics and terms related to representing mathematics. Such a transfer forces us to make sense of mathematical objects (Game & Metcalfe, 1996). Many people tell stories of their childhood when they were frustrated in mathematics class and/or scared of problem solving in mathematics. The long thread of their struggle in learning mathematics in schools may create different images of mathematics; many of them, unfortunately, negative (Sterenberg, 2008).
Many past studies (e.g., Lakoff & Nunez, 2000; Ma & Kishor, 1997; McLeod, 1992; Richardson & Suinn, 1972;
Sam, 1999; Wigfield & Meece, 1988; Wood, 1988) focused attention to psychological, philosophical, epistemological, and pedagogical images of mathematics. They also touched upon different attitudes toward mathematics and mathematics anxieties. Philosophical and epistemological lenses toward looking at mathematics and mathematics education in terms of realism, intuitionism, formalism, constructivism, criticalism, postmodernism, and integralism seem to have a powerful influence in shaping these images of mathematics, different attitudes toward mathematics, and different levels of positive and negative anxieties toward mathematics.

Affective States in Mathematics Learning
Historically, many researchers in mathematics education (e.g., Forgas, 2001; Goldin, 2002; McLead, 1992;
Petty, DeSteno, & Rucker, 2001) discussed affect as an important aspect of teaching and learning mathematics.
They clarified the psychological and cognitive meaning of affect and its implication in mathematics education.
McLeod (1992) articulated affect as a major concern in teaching and learning mathematics in terms of psychological theories, cognitive approaches, and reconceptualization of the affective domain in mathematics education. He outlined some aspects of beliefs, attitudes, emotions, and confidence in learning mathematics from the contemporary literatures of research in mathematics education. He also explicated the nature of affective domains in mathematics education in terms of self-concept, mathematics anxiety, self-efficacy, effort and ability attributions, causal attributions, learned helplessness, motivation, autonomy, and aesthetics.
However, these discussions did not clearly articulated how images of mathematics foster different attitudes and anxiety levels of the learners of mathematics. Also, he did not articulate the pedagogical relationship among various affective factors and how they contribute to each other. The contemporary research on affective factors in teaching and learning mathematics seemed focused heavily on measurement rather than finding the subtle reasons and implications in mathematics education. The affective states of teachers and students in terms of their experiences in mathematics, both formal and informal, may have a tremendous impact on how they think about the subject, how they interact with others mathematically, how they perceive their role, how they conceive their world, how they prepare themselves for the future, and how they make conscious efforts to overcome the sense of uncertainty. In this context, images of mathematics, mathematics anxiety, and attitude toward mathematics as a part of affective domain can be interrelated to see their implications in teaching and learning mathematics.
Images of Mathematics
When one thinks about images of mathematics, two things may come up in his or her mind: images as objects or images as abstraction. I think images as objects in relation to mathematics are related to symbols and images as abstraction is related to operations. The images as objects seem to be static view that visualizes mathematics as a subject matter. The images as an abstraction seem to be dynamic that visualizes mathematics as a process or operation. Tall and Vinner (1981) defined a concept image as cognitive structures related to a mathematical concept, including both mental images and construction of words. A concept (e.g., the color of a leaf) must allow for variability with time and context. If we imagine an object shaped like an apple that is purple, we can still believe that it is an apple. We have the freedom to recombine familiar ideas in novel ways. Since we have never seen a purple apple, it is unlikely that we would form an image of one, when hearing the word apple (Browne, 2009). 232 Belbase
McGinn (2004) asserts that images are part of an active nature, since they are subject to the will of the viewer.
Percepts belong to the passive part of thinking and imagination. In other words, one must make an effort to form an image of something, while the same may not hold true for just looking.
In absolutist viewpoint, images of mathematics are viewed as an impartial, absolute, definite, and persistent body of knowledge based on deductive logic (Ernest, 1991). Ernest further claims, “among twentieth century philosophies, logicism, formalism, and, to some extent, intuitionism and Platonism may be said to be absolutist in this way” (Ernest, 1991, p. 2). However, Ernest (2008) claimed that absolutism is not much concerned about unfolding mathematics or mathematical knowledge in the world around us.
Rensaa (2006) asserts that in the past few decades a new tendency of epistemology, pedagogy, psychology, and philosophy of mathematics is securing a ground, and these days many mathematicians and mathematics educators propose a non-absolutist justification of mathematics. Kitcher and Aspray (1988) described this as
“the ‘maverick’ tradition that emphasizes the practice of, and human side of mathematics, and characterizes mathematical knowledge as historical, changing, and corrigible” (Ernest, 1991, p. 2). The image of mathematics is generally viewed as falsifiable (can be wrong), contextual (changes with the situation), and relative
(mathematical rules are not universal, but subject to verification within a context).
A widespread public image of mathematics in the West is that it is difficult, cold, abstract, theoretical, and ultrarational, and, also important and largely masculine (Ernest, 2008). It also has the image of being remote
(distant) and inaccessible (not possible to reach) to all, but a few extra-ordinary human beings with
‘mathematical minds’ (Buerk, 1982; Buxton, 1981; Ernest, 1996; Picker & Berry, 2000). For many people this negative image of mathematics is also associated with anxiety and failure in mathematics. When Brigid Sewell was gathering data on adult numeracy for the Cockcroft (1982) inquiry, she asked a sample of adults on the street if they would answer some questions. Half of them refused to answer further questions when they understood it was about mathematics, suggesting negative attitudes. Extremely negative attitudes such as
‘mathephobia’ (Maxwell, 1989) probably only occur in a small minority in Western societies, and may not be significant at all in other countries. In fact, the world-wide consensus of mathematics educators is that school mathematics must counter that image, and offer, instead, something that is personally engaging and useful, or motivating in some other way, if it is to fulfill its social functions (Howson & Wilson, 1986; NCTM, 1989;
Skovsmose, 1994).
Mathematics Anxiety
When one thinks about mathematics anxiety, two things may come to his or her mind: one is ‘anxiety as progressive thinking’ and the other is ‘anxiety as regressive thinking’. To me all anxieties are not worthless things. Anxieties can be both good and worthless. If it promotes progressive thinking (like when one is puzzling in a mathematics problem for a few days and he or she is trying to solve it in a variety of ways without losing the passion), then certainly it is a good thing. Anxiety is mostly taken as regressive thinking in which a person having anxiety tries to go away or get rid of mathematical problem simply by avoiding it and taking it negatively. Mathematics anxiety is an anxious state in response to mathematics-related situations that are perceived as threatening to self-esteem. Cemen (1987) proposed a model of mathematics anxiety reaction consisting of environmental antecedents (e.g., negative mathematics experiences, lack of parental encouragement), dispositional antecedents (e.g., negative attitudes, lack of confidence), and situational antecedents (e.g., classroom factors, instructional format) are seen to interact to produce an anxious reaction with its physiological manifestations (e.g., perspiring, increased heartbeat, and restlessness). Many researchers (e.g., Ma & Kishor,
1997; Richardson & Suinn, 1972; Tobias & Weissbrod, 1980) reported the consequences of being anxious toward mathematics, including the inability to do mathematics, the deterioration in mathematics achievement, the escaping of mathematics courses, the limitation of students in selecting college mathematics majors and related future careers, and the extremely deleterious feelings of guilt and humiliation. Ma and Kishor (1997) claimed that mathematics anxiety is usually associated with mathematics achievement individually. A student's level of mathematics anxiety can significantly predict his or her mathematics performance (Fennema &
Sherman, 1977; Wigfield & Meece, 1988), probably both in negative and positive ways.
Miller and Bichsel (2004) claimed that math anxiety appears to primarily impact one’s visual working memory that contradicts previous research findings that mathematical anxiety is primarily processed in verbal working memory and supporting the hypothesis that math anxiety does not function similarly to other types of anxiety.
They identified two general types of anxiety: trait and state. They clarified that individuals experiencing trait IJEMST (International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology) 233 anxiety have a characteristic tendency to feel anxious across all types of situations. In contrast, individuals possessing state anxiety tend to experience it only in specific personally stressful or fearful situations. Trait anxiety is more related to a wide range of situations to which one feels a kind of threat, unsecured, and challenge all the time. In mathematics, students under this anxiety have a fear of mathematics class, homework, exam and any situation when comes to mathematics. According to Spielberger et al. (1970), state anxiety reflects a temporary emotional state characterized by personal, deliberately perceived feelings of mental tension and uneasiness with a greater sensitiveness in the nervous system. Several past studies demonstrated that both state and trait anxiety affect task performance in mathematics (e.g., MacLeod & Donnellan, 1993; Miller &
Bichsel, 2004). Concluding the findings from these researches, Miller and Bichsel stated that individuals with high trait anxiety show poorer performance on various tasks than low trait anxiety individuals. This difference tends to be exacerbated in a high state anxiety condition. With reference to research on the impact of gender on math anxiety, Hembree (1990) found math anxiety being more predictive of math performance in males than in females. However, further study is necessary to re-confirm this claim.
Attitude toward Mathematics
Images of mathematics as perceived by a person develop his or her positive or negative attitude towards mathematics. These images have a significant impact on one’s choice of mathematics as major in higher education. In this context, many studies have been conducted on attitudes toward mathematics (e.g., Eleftherios
& Theodosius, 2007; Hannula, 2002, 2004; Zan & Di Martino, 2007) with contradictory results. Eleftherios and
Theodosius (2007) used the term ‘beliefs’ in the meaning of personal judgments and views, which constitute one’s subjective knowledge, does not need formal justification. They investigated the students’ beliefs and attitudes, which mainly concerned studying and learning mathematics. Specifically, they explored their factorial structure. Also, they investigated whether there were differences in students’ beliefs and attitudes regarding their social status and gender; they examined whether these factors correlated and influenced students’ performance, and their capability in dealing with mathematical proofs. They found a significant statistical difference between female and male students concerning “mathematical understanding is achieved through procedures and studying mathematics with understanding” (p. 101). Students’ interest or motivation in learning mathematics was found to be correlated positively with studying of mathematics involving understanding and reflection, with high performance at school and with the ability to understand mathematical proofs. The results from this study identified the factors that lead to the development of students’ positive and negative attitude towards mathematics with a significant impact on their learning of mathematics and achievement.
According to Zan and Di Martino (2007), the phenomenon of ‘negative attitude towards mathematics’ is related to the learning of the discipline. They further claimed that the negative attitude towards mathematics affects various aspects of the social context: the refusal of many students to enroll in scientific undergraduate courses due to the presence of exams in mathematics, a worrisome about even simple mathematical illiteracy, or an explicit and generalized refusal to apply mathematical rationality, and a tendency to uncritical acceptance of models that are only apparently rational. Their results suggested that the attitudes do not seem to have the characteristics of a theoretical instrument capable of directing their work. They found from personal essays that the two dimensions - vision of mathematics and like/dislike - are mutually independent. They further noticed that this independence was strongly expressed in characterizing mathematics as useful/useless and easy/ difficult subject. Hannula (2002, 2004) asserted on everyday-notion-of-attitude referring as someone’s basic liking and disliking of a familiar target. He discussed students’ attitude towards mathematics separating them into four different evaluative processes: emotions the students experience during the mathematics-related activities, the emotions that students automatically associate with the concept mathematics, evaluations of situations that students expect to follow as a consequence of doing mathematics, and the value of mathematics related goals in the students’ global structure. Through an action research, the researcher was successful to change attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of a participating student. He also proposed a theoretical framework about emotions, associations, expectations, and values to study attitude towards mathematics. The most significant conclusion from this study was that the proposed framework of emotions, associations, expectations, and values was useful in describing attitudes, and their changes in detail. He further concluded that attitudes, sometimes, could change dramatically in a relatively short time and the negative attitude towards mathematics could be a successful defense strategy of a positive self-concept.234 Belbase
Relationship among Images, Anxieties and Attitudes
It seems that images, anxieties, and attitudes play a significant role in learning mathematics. These attributes are related to personal psychology, philosophy and epistemology. Wigfield and Meece (1998) assessed relations between math anxiety and other key mathematical attitudes, students’ beliefs and values, and their mathematical performance measured in a large study as one way of assessing the distinctiveness of math anxiety. Several researchers (e.g., Fennema, 1977; Fennema & Shermon, 1977; Richardson & Suinn, 1972; Tobias & Weissbrod,
1980) reported a negative correlation between math anxiety and low performance in mathematics, and then poor images associated with negative attitude towards mathematics. Although research studies have been undertaken to examine the affective domain, it has become central to describe a person's attitude towards mathematics using precise but connected terminology, e.g. beliefs, emotions, confidence, anxiety, self-concept or image (McLeod,
1992).
There are some commonly held beliefs about mathematics which are still true today as they are associated with math anxiety (Kogelman & Warren, 1978). Sam (1999) reported that these beliefs are: (a) inherited mathematical ability that some people have a mathematical mind and some don’t, (b) one must always know how he or she got the answer, (c) there is one best way to solve a mathematics problem, (d) mathematics requires a good memory, (e) men are better at mathematics than women, (f) it is always essential to get the answer exactly right, (g) mathematicians solve problems quickly in their heads, and (h) it is bad to count on your fingers. These beliefs seem to be more like misconceptions developed in societies about mathematics.
These misconceptions are hindering factors for people’s interest to study mathematics, use mathematics to solve problems, and think mathematically about their world.
Based upon above discussions on images, anxieties and attitudes towards mathematics, a theoretical model leading to the success or failure of mathematics teaching and learning with regard to student achievement, and motivation can be suggested. Images of mathematics as infallible or fallible, mathematics anxiety as high or low self-esteem, and attitude towards mathematics as positive or negative can be modeled into a triangular relation leading to a perception about mathematics. This theoretical model can be represented in a diagram as in figure 1.
This untested model can be considered as a basis to relate images, anxieties and attitudes together with several possibilities of combinations. There are eight possible outcomes from the model representing different perceptions about mathematics including, (1) infallible, high self-esteem, positive attitude; (2) infallible, high self-esteem, negative attitude; (3) infallible, low self-esteem, positive attitude; (4) infallible, low self-esteem, negative attitude; (5) fallible, high self-esteem, positive attitude; (6) fallible, high self-esteem, negative attitude;
(7) fallible, low self-esteem, positive attitude; and (8) fallible, low self-esteem, negative attitude.
Figure 1: Model of triangular relation of images, anxieties and attitudes towards mathematics
Among these combinations, the combinations (1), (4), (5) and (8) seem practically viable psychological states in terms of the interrelation of images, anxieties, and attitudes. The rest of the combinations may be theoretically viable, but they seem to be non-practical because high self-esteem and negative attitude, and low self-esteem and positive attitude towards mathematics seem to contradict. The contradiction in high self-esteem and negative attitude, and low self-esteem and positive attitude is obvious as they represent opposite characters about one’s perception towards mathematics.IJEMST (International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology) 235
Among the four possibilities, the first one is a combination of infallible (image), high self-esteem (low degree of anxiety), and a positive attitude. This combination is possible to develop a perception towards mathematics as absolute, infallible and incorrigible; however, the student has high self-esteem and positive attitude towards mathematics. The view of mathematics as absolute and infallible leads the student to develop a positivistic philosophy that can lead to the development of his or her personality as an Absolutist. The student with this kind of personality enjoys routine problem solving, follows a rigid procedure to solve problems, and values high scores in tests.
The fourth combination of infallible, low self-esteem and negative attitude is a problematic situation. Teacher centered teaching and learning that have fewer activities in the class for students, less emphasis to group or peer works, less questioning by the students, and authoritative instructions may result into low self-esteem and negative attitude towards mathematics. Teaching and learning mathematics guided by drill, practice, and copy from the board instead of construction of ideas by students may lead to this situation impacting severely in students’ understanding of mathematics and then achievement.
The fifth combination of fallible, high self-esteem and positive attitude leads to the development a perception that mathematical objects are socially constructed, it is fallible and questionable, and the student has a high selfesteem towards mathematics leading to positive attitude. This combination develops the personality of students to question mathematical objects and processes, maintain high self-esteem about learning mathematics, and think positively about his or her ability to learn mathematics. These students value the process of learning mathematics and they try to understand the nature of mathematics from examples and practices. They enjoy non-routine type unstructured problem solving.
The eighth combination of fallible, low self-esteem and negative attitude leads to the development a perception that mathematical objects are socially constructed, fallible, and questionable; however, the student has low selfesteem due to some internal and external problems to cope with the situation in the classroom that ultimately leads to the development of negative attitude. The teacher can help such students to develop high self-esteem by changing the pace of learning and helping him or her to learn from contexts to unstructured problem solving.
The triangular relation among images, anxieties, and attitudes toward mathematics has some pedagogical implications that have been discussed in the next section.
Implications in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics
Choice of instructional methods and resources and their appropriate use in classroom teaching and learning of mathematics largely depends on images of mathematics as perceived by the teacher and students. Images based on an absolutist view of mathematics as neutral and value-free regarding teaching the contents as necessitating the adoption of humanistic, connected values have raised the issue of the relationship between epistemology and philosophy of mathematics, values and teaching (Ernest, 1995). Empirical research (e.g., Cooney, 1988) confirmed the claims that teachers' personal views, opinions, perceptions, beliefs, and priorities about mathematics do influence their instructional practices (Thompson, 1984). “Thus it may be argued that any philosophy of mathematics (including personal philosophies) has many educational and pedagogical consequences when embodied in teachers' beliefs, curriculum developments, or examination systems” (Ernest,
1995, p. 457). These images of mathematics from the epistemological, psychological, and philosophical perspectives value inductive and deductive reasoning as a way to learn and teach mathematics. Those images of mathematics have possible negative and positive impacts on teaching and learning of mathematics with the subsequent development of attitudes toward mathematics as positive or negative (e.g., Ma & Kishor, 1997;
Lakoff & Nunez, 2000).
Based upon the above discussion, we can say that effective teaching depends on one’s image of mathematics based on personal epistemology and philosophy. It is up to a teacher to select a method of instruction in the classroom to engage students in learning mathematics. If the teacher views that school mathematics is merely a collection of formulas, rules, and procedures that must be memorized and mastered, then he may apply traditional teaching techniques like drilling in the class, working with individual worksheet practices, and using flashcards. If the teacher believes that mathematics is an integrated whole, a study of structures and the relationships among different things, and study methods and one’s understanding the world, then the goal of teaching mathematics may change. Now the teacher helps students develop the skills they can use to solve mathematical, non-mathematical, and non-routine problems. This also may include the students’ ability to reason mathematically or quantitatively, to clarify and justify mathematical ideas, to use mathematical and other 236 Belbase resources, to work collaboratively with other people, and to be able to generalize situations, as well as the their ability to carry out mathematical computations and procedures (Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, 1998).
In summary, different studies (as discussed above) indicated a positive relationship among images, anxieties and attitudes towards mathematics, and these emotional factors had a negative relationship with student’s achievement. However, there is a lack of research that examines the teachers’ pedagogy and students’ achievement in relation to different combinations of images, anxieties, and attitudes toward mathematics. The theoretical model presented in this paper with varying combinations of fallible or infallible images, high or low self-esteem and positive or negative attitudes can have significant pedagogical implications. A teacher’s awareness to these combinations can help him or her to maintain a balance among different approaches of teaching and learning mathematics as per the needs and contexts in the classroom. Such a balance of teaching and learning approaches, followed by a constructivist approach in conjunction with instructionist approach, can be helpful to teach mathematics lessons in a meaningful way through which students gain high quality learning experiences. Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Martin Agran, Professor in the Department of Professional Studies, College of
Education, University of Wyoming, for his guidance and care while writing this manuscript as a course assignment in his class of Writing for Publication in the spring of 2010. I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their encouraging feedback/comments to the manuscript.
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...INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING Schunk (2012) states, that learning is not just an act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. The definition of learning for this student is all about acquiring knowledge or developing the ability to perform new behaviors. It is common to think of learning as something that takes place in school but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives. Every individual in the world is different and we all learner in different ways and speeds but most importantly it is what we are learning and teaching ourselves that is important. Since this learner is studying Family Psychology, it is not fair to choose just one learning theory. A family is made up of many different individuals, personalities, and behaviors. As a future counselor of these individuals it is imperative that she learn all she can about each theory and how they can relate to her clients. All the theories work together and disprove each other in some way so in choosing a particular theory, functionalism and structuralism will be discussed. Structuralism and functionalism investigate the human mind and use the mind as the subject of every study. They are also both are concerned with the conscious self. While they share some similarities, they also show some variation. Structuralism focuses on “revealing the most basic structures or components of the mind” (Zimbardo, 2006). Functionalism, on the other hand, focuses on mental...

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...include both print and nonprint media that are intended to supplement, rather than replace, actual teaching * Used to assist the teacher to deliver messages clearly and creatively and to help the learner retain more effectively what they learn Choosing instructional materials * Characteristics of the learner – It is important to “know your audience” so media can be chosen that best suit the learners’ perceptual abilities, physical abilities, reading abilities, motivational levels, developmental stages, and learning styles. * Characteristics of the media – A wide variety of media, print and nonprint, are available to enhance your teaching. The tools selected are the form through which the information will be communicated. No single medium is most effective. Therefore, using a multimedia approach is suggested. * Characteristic of the task – The task to be accomplished depends on identifying the complexity of the behaviour and the domains for learning – what the learner needs to know, value, or be able to do. Three major components of instructional materials 1. Delivery system – the physical form of the material and the hardware used to present the material; depends on the size of the audience, how quickly or slowly the information needs to be presented, and the sensory abilities of the audience 2. Content – the actual information that is shared with the learners; the material should give accurate information, should be appropriate for the particular...

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...Usually, learning is the basis in relation of students and teachers in a classroom. However, with the emergence of online education, virtual classrooms are replacing the long-established classroom setting. Although online learning has many advantages for some students, it can also lead to some difficult challenges. In order for online education to be successful, it is crucial that those challenges are identified and efficiently dealt with. Organizational skills, time management, and effective communication are key elements for a successful online education. Having organizational skills is one of the important keys for online education success. I will use the organizational skills I have learned in my professional career to arrange my work into time intervals that will allow me to complete certain parts that need to be completed at a given time. By using the strategy, the amount of time that I usually waste will decrease. Organizational skills are not limited to time and work; it extends beyond materials and workspace. Working with my newfound organizational skills will also make my work and everyday routine more precise and deliberate; I will be a lot more conscious and sure of what I will be doing later. By having, a schedule I will be more prepared and lessen the tension, and in turn, my daily function will be more efficient. Another key for online education success is effective time management. No matter how one approaches time management, there will always be...

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...Critical Reflections on Learning Learning and teaching We would suggest that learning and teaching are two sides of the same coin and our understanding of what it means to be a good teacher (see Critical reflection on teaching) is based in part on what we had to do to become successful learners, so this area of our belief system will provide fruitful material for evaluation and reflection. Williams and Burden express this well: The successful educator must be one who understands the complexities of the teaching-learning process and can draw upon this knowledge to act in ways which empower learners both within and beyond the classroom situation. (Williams and Burden,1997: 5) As a start to reflecting on your teaching, you are asked to reflect on (your own) learning. Take a few moments to: • think about the strategies, techniques and approaches that you personally found helpful (or not) as a learner • consider whether we should assume that others (especially your students) will respond in the same way • analyse distinctive elements of learning in your own subject or discipline Exploring learning We probably all have personal beliefs about how learning happens.  Take a few more moments to think about your own learning • Do you consider yourself to be a successful learner of your subject? Why (not?) • Are there any particular strategies or techniques that work(ed) well for you as a learner? • Did you learn your subject...

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...The Open University (OU) is a prime example of a Higher Education institution which has had the savvy to realise the opportunity afforded through eLearning to target a specific type of learner who does not fit the traditional model of a university student (9). As the leading model of distance learning institution, the OU is well accustomed to educating remote learners and has, through its commercial subsidiary Corous, begun offering “computer based interactive learning and training systems”(25) to organisations looking to train and equip their employees with a number of new skills(25) Despite Professor Lilliard’s assessment, eLearning now plays an integral part in the Open University’s strategy (4) and it is pivotal in their attempts to lure the corporate clients. As far as an individual is concerned, eLearning presents the learner with the opportunity to engage in study without the need to be physically present at his/her institution and as such, is liberated from the need to attend preordained sessions or lectures (23). This emancipation of the learning process means that education is immediately made accessible to those who would otherwise find a fixed time table prohibitive or would otherwise be unable to attend the institution of their choice (26). 6. Limitations and shortcomings of eLearning According to Macpherson, the overwhelming majority of information concerning eLearning gravitates towards its advantages (27), however the author’s experience would suggest otherwise...

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...the person will repeat that behaviour in the future as they want the positive attention. Negative reinforcement = maintains a learnt avoidance of a phobia as removal (moving away from the phobia) of the negative emotions and feelings will reinforce the behaviour. Therefore allowing the individual to learn that avoiding situations will reduce the negative emotions. Another example is when people suffer with addictions the removal of the withdrawal symptoms by the drug negatively reinforces the abnormal behaviour. Social Learning Theory as an explanation of abnormality Bandura suggests that if we observe behaviour, are able to recall the details, have the ability to replicate it and the opportunity to, then if we are motivated by reinforcements… we will imitate and repeat it. Children learn from role models within their lives eg. parents, older siblings and teachers.Antisocial behaviour can be explained by Social Learning Theory, if a child observes an aggressive model who is rewarded. This can lead to imitation therefore the child is likely to imitate antisocial behaviours like aggression. Also some phobias develop due to observing how a model responds to a stimulus. If a child observes a model respond in a negative/maladaptive way to a stimulus then it is likely that the child will also imitate that behaviour as they learn to be frightened of that...

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...Strategic Learning Plan Goal 1- Studying: I will increase my study time by 2-3 hours each week. * I will plan out my schedule and see what I need to study for most by seeing when class is and what class I am having a hard time with. Also when test or quizzes for that class is. * For example in Soc 101 I have a quiz on Wednesday. So on Monday and Tuesday in my room I will review the material that will be on the quiz and think of questions that will be on the quiz. I plan on studying for an hour or two from 6-8. I will do this because I want to pass with a good grade. Goal 2- Reading: I will read the material until I can comprehend and learned what I need to know. * While reading I will highlight, underline, and margin write by important facts that will help me when I go back to study. * For example in Soc 101 I have to read two chapter each week for homework. So while reading my textbook I will highlight import facts such as terms and statistics. Also margin write so I summarize that section and makes sense to me. I will do this on Monday at around 6pm and my room, to succeed int his class. Goal 3- Note taking: Just improve note taking techniques * Just write the main idea or key statements not waste time writing everything. * For all classes write what I need to and not worry about unimportant fact or things I already know. This will help improve my grades overall and be a better student. Goal 4- Test taking strategies: Be better prepared for...

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...Evaluation Anna Parks PSY/390 8-18-14 Rita Pavone Evaluation In psychology, habituation refers to learned behavior in ignoring neutral stimuli. Habituation theory holds that when an animal is repeatedly exposed to stimuli that neither hurts nor helps, it stops responding. This lack of response to something that isn't posing a problem means that the animal isn't wasting energy; it's still alert in case danger does occur. Although it's easy to confuse habituation learning with sensory adaptation, the two aren't the same. Behavior is the key in habituation, as the animal may respond to the stimuli in other ways, but one part of the response is stopped. Habituation means that when something doesn't pose a threat to our safety, we get used to it. We learn to just put up with harmless stimuli rather than waste our energy reacting to it. For instance, if a person moves into a home near a railroad track and the vibration can be felt through the floor every time a train goes by, at first he or she may feel like something bad will happen, such as the vibration will cause people in the home to fall or an object to fall and break. Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain. A large amount of information is being sensed at any one time such as room temperature, brightness of the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. With all this information coming into our senses, the majority of our world never gets recognized...

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...Problem Learning Information The Testing Problem Adult learning theories aid in understanding and analyzing how adults learn, the problems they face, and how to make the process more effective. This issue holds great value for the academic audience because when understood properly, it can help teachers be more efficient in their teaching process and be further receptive and approachable to the requirements of the learners. One of the most widespread ways to assess learning is through testing, however, many theorists question the effectiveness of judging learning by testing because all the learners do is memorize the information and write it down. According to Mezirow, learning isn’t simply a memorization process but is a channel through which students can reflect on various worldly notions and experience some form of enlightenment in their sphere of comprehension (Mezirow, 3-24). Memorization significantly hinders learning as it is only the retention of information for a short period of time and not the actual understanding of it. Freire believes learning should be engaging and should compel you to reflect upon the forces that bind hence ultimately emancipating you from problems (Loyd, 3-20). According to Freire, the more students partake in memorization and tests, the more they will stop to think for themselves and gain that critical awareness. In such a situation, both the learner and the instructor would be at a loss (Loyd, 3-20). Freire and Mezirow talk about about...

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...Mezirow defines learning as "process of using a prior interpretation to construct a new or a revised interpretation of the meaning of one's experience in order to guide future action."(2000, p.5) We use past experiences to change and to get a better understanding of how to cope with situations for our future. When adult learners return to school, they are skeptical in their understanding of what the teacher is expecting them to learn in order to pass their GED test. When adults have not worked in years or living in poverty, a new job may intimidate them. As adults, we have to be to open to change; therefore, being able to understanding how their experiences and deconstructing their thought processes. During Mezirow's transformation learning of early development, critiques leveled against the theory, and various revisions were made. We have to use prior knowledge to gain more knowledge. Adult learners cannot rely on the teachers or employers for all the information needed to successful, but deconstruct using instruction, dialog and self-reflection. Friere argued the consciousness growth, the lowest stage, was intransitive thought. I agree that you can't rely solely on your higher power to achieve everything for you. Some things that one wants to accomplish can be done in the right manner along with the one’s higher power’s assistance. I agree with Friere’s higher level of critical transitivity that one can think globally and critically about the present condition and decide...

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...In my opinion, the profession of nursing that we have all chosen for ourselves is one of lifelong learning. With nursing, as well as many other professions, things are changing continually. In order to keep up with these changes, we must be willing to keep learning and growing as professionals. I believe it is our responsibility as nurses to continue to learn new things in order to provide the best care possible for our patients. According to Eason (2010), “In order to assure patients optimal care, nurses must be well versed in the most accurate and current information in clinical practice. Curiosity and desire to enhance nursing knowledge are essential to skill in practice” (p. 155). According to the American Nurses Association (2010), “Registered nurses as lifelong learners must have available the appropriate and adequate professional development and continuing education opportunities to maintain and advance skills and enhance competencies” (p. 118). I feel it is our responsibility, as well as that of our employers, to promote lifelong learning. Working at Riverside Methodist Hospital, we are provided with a few different options to further our education. There is tuition reimbursement, which I am currently taking advantage of. There is also the Grad Program, which pays for all of your tuition and books, but is much more selective in who is accepted. Furthering our education and keeping ourselves updated with all of the continuing changes of nursing definitely increases...

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...situation. Although they attempt to generalize how people learn and understand, one can see through real world experiences that the information we communicate isn’t always universally understood. During some circumstances studies and actual learning experiences will tend to vary. From my earliest years in the military I’ve always wanted to earn my college degree. I felt that finishing my education would be a personal milestone in my life and that it would better prepare me for the future beyond the military. Although it has taken nearly eight years to complete, a degree in Criminal Justice will certainly be an advantage moving forward. In any type of academic, one must identify different learning styles in order to properly retain the information presented in a course. This will help to prepare for different methods of teaching and how to represent information in a way that will be most effectively understood. According to Felder and Soloman “active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it.” (Felder & Soloman, n.d., para. 1) I have always found this to be the best way for me to learn and retain information. Although I have established that this was the best way that I learn, the NC State learning style inventory revealed that I was more of a sensing and visual learner. Furthermore, upon completion of the Penn State inventory I was shown to have characteristics of an auditory and visual learner. When the results were presented...

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