...CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature 2.1 Foreign Literatures 2.1.1 The Simplified Method The Simplified Method is the most common procedure for evaluating the liquefaction potential of soil. Developed by H.B. Seed and I.M. Idriss in 1971, this method uses two fundamental terms: (1) Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR), and (2) Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CSR). The CRR characterizes the liquefaction resistance of granular soils and is typically acquired from in situ tests. It can also be estimated by cyclic tests on reconstituted soil samples. According to a summary report by Youd and Idriss (2001), the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/ NSF Workshops reviewed the modern method of analysing the potential liquefiable layers of soil. They recommended revised criteria for routine evaluation of CRR from various tests such as the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and the Standard Penetration Test (SPT). Robertson and Wride (1998) informed that CRR evaluated by CPT may be adequate for low-risk, small-scale projects. But for medium to high-risk projects, there may be more than one method that should be used to determine the CRR. Idriss and Boulanger (2004) commented that the quality of the site characterization is the greatest factor that could affect any liquefaction evaluation. The workshops concluded that it might be much more specific when two or more tests should be used for a more reliable value of CRR. As for the evaluation of CRR from laboratory tests, the chief hindrance is the acquiring of in...
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...Anjali Singh (20141006) 2. Bhaumik Gandhi (20141011) 3. Parth Parekh (20141045) 4. Poras Shah (20141049) Faculty Mentor: Prof. Sudhir Yadav Mentor’s Comments on Progress: Mentor’s Signature with date: INDEX Sr.No. | Topics | | 1. | Introduction | | 2. | Exploration | | | 1.1 Onshore seismology | | | 1.2 Offshore seismology | | | 1.3 Megnatometer | | | 1.4 Gravitimeter | | | 1.5 The drilling and completion process | | | 1.6 Types of drilling | | | 1.7 Risk anaylisis during exploration | | | 1.8 Key challenges | | | 1.9 Appropriate solutions | | 3. | Liquefaction | | | 2.1 Liquefaction Process | | | 2.2 Different Liquefaction Techniques | | | 2.3 Liquefaction Process | | | 2.4 Solution to the issues related to Liquefaction of LNG | | 4. | Transportation | | | 3.1 Need of transportation of gas in form of lng | | | 3.2 LNG carrier | | | 3.3 Trading of LNG | | | 3.4 Types of LNG terminals | | | 3.5 Solution to issues related to transportation of lng | | 5. | Regasification | | | 4.1 Regasification Process | | | 4.2 Factors for LNG vaporizer selection process | | | 4.3 Open Rack Vaporisers (ORVS) and its features | | | 4.4 Challenges | | ABSTRACT World primary energy demand is expected to grow by 1.6% per annum over the period 2010 to 2030, which will require 39% additional energy to meet this requirement. The share of...
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...Not long after, the California emergency response team called him, asking what he could say about the earthquake, because the seismometers had been 152 knocked out by its severity. He told them the direction from which it came, along with its approximate distance (based on the time between different waves, but not the P and S that are normally used, as described earlier). From these he guessed that the earthquake was near Santa Cruz, and he was also able to roughly guess its strength. He boasted to me that for several hours his information was the best available. I must mention, however, that this “expert” is the same friend who bought a house on dredged coastal fill, the worst possible place to be in an earthquake; that is why he was able to view this earthquake so well. Scope of the problem To begin to see the scope of the problem of earthquakes and people, let’s consider a few statistics: • ~150 earthquakes each year are potentially damaging (Mw 6); • ~20 earthquakes each year cause severe damage (Mw 7); • in the 1990’s, more than 100,000 people were killed in earthquakes, especially those in Iran, India, Russia, and Japan. This was a worse death toll than usual, not because of more earthquakes but because they happened to affect highly populated areas. By comparison, storm surges killed 300,000 people in 1992 alone, mostly in Bangladesh. • the largest earthquake of the last 40 years, the Mw 9.2 Sumatra earthquake, created a tsunami that killed 228...
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...Course Teacher: Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman Professor Department of Civil Engineering DUET Soil Dynamics: Soil Dynamics is the branch of soil mechanics which deals with the engineering properties and behavior of soil under dynamic stress, including the analysis of the stability of earth supported and earth retaining structures. The study of Soil dynamics include the machine foundations, impact loadings, dynamic soil properties, slope stability, bearing capacity, settlement, vibratory compaction, pile driving analysis and field testing, ground anchor systems, seismic design parameters, liquefaction, sheet pile walls and laboratory testing. Nature/sources of types of dynamic loading: * Dynamic loads on foundation and soil structure may act due to * Earthquake * Bomb blast * Operation of reciprocating and rotary machines and hammers * Construction operation such as pile driving * Quarrying * Fast moving traffic including landing aircraft * Wind * Loading due to wave action of water * Etc * The nature of each of these loads is quite different from the nature of the loads in the other cases. * Earthquakes constitute the single most important source of dynamic loads on structures and foundation. * Every earth quake is associated with a certain amount of energy released at its source and can be assigned a magnitude (m) which is just a number. * Table gives an idea of the energy associated with a particular...
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...of Petroleum Engineers and a Director of the Boeing Company. Linda Cook: The role of LNG in a global gas market Global demand for natural gas may double by 2030, with LNG growing perhaps fivefold – driven by continued cost reduction. Despite the capital intensity of LNG projects and the complexity of the value chain, LNG supply capacity is increasing rapidly. Existing schemes are being expanded and many greenfield projects are moving ahead. Although the spot market for LNG is growing, new projects continue to be underpinned by long-term sales contracts. Competition for supplies is increasing price connectivity between regions. Seizing the opportunities of this exciting business requires the ability both to develop gas supplies and liquefaction capacity, and also to connect this to emerging and premium markets. Thanks to the organisers for inviting me to join you today. I think the fact that a conference entitled ‘Oil and Money’ has devoted a session to natural gas underlines the growing role gas is playing in the energy...
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...SSI framework is rare. 1.4 Behavior of Soil under Earthquake Loads 1.4.1. Liquefaction Liquefaction is a marvel in which the quality and firmness of a dirt is diminished by seismic tremor shaking or other quick stacking. Liquefaction and related wonders have been in charge of enormous measures of harm in chronicled tremors far and wide. Liquefaction happens in immersed soils, that is, soils in which the space between individual particles is totally loaded with water. This water applies a weight on the dirt particles that impacts how firmly the particles themselves are squeezed together. Before a seismic tremor, the water weight is moderately low. In any case, seismic tremor shaking can bring about the water weight to increment to the point where the dirt particles can promptly move as for each other. The weights created amid vast seismic tremors with many cycles of shaking can make the melted sand and abundance water compel its way to the ground surface from a few meters underneath the ground. This is regularly seen as "sand bubbles" likewise called "sand blows" or "sand volcanoes" (as they seem to shape little volcanic pits) at the ground surface. The wonder may fuse both stream of effectively melted sand from a layer subterranean, and a sand trap impact whereby upward stream of water starts liquefaction in overlying non-condensed sandy stores because of lightness. The impacts of soil liquefaction on the manufactured condition can be to a great degree harming. Structures...
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...What is EARTHQUAKE ? An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that createsseismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011 (as of March 2014), and it was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.[1] At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking...
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...Geography 40 mark EQ question Discuss the statement: The extent to which earthquakes present a hazard depends on where they are experienced. (40 marks) A Hazard is best defined as a situation that’s ‘a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or persons’. An earthquake is a tectonic event which can be a huge hazard to people- particularly effecting areas of the earth around convergent, divergent and transform plate boundaries: in both MEDC’s and LEDC’s with equally force. Hazards earthquakes cause can be divided into two sub-categories: primary and secondary effects. Primary effects are the problems that are of direct result of the seismic waves, including effects such as liquefaction, tsunamis and landslides. Primary effects then lead to secondary effects; floods, fires, disease and even malnourishment. However a number of factors can dictate whether these effects present a hazard to people or not- location, whether in a MEDC or LEDC, can dictate the severity of the hazard. To start, I want to highlight the difference in the primary effects of an earthquake. Comparing the factors like death and injuries- or social effects- and then the environmental effects in looking at the destruction of infrastructure experienced in varying parts of the world. To highlight this difference of place: using an EQ in a LEDC and one in a MEDC. So looking at deaths and injuries we can see as an overall trend there tends to be more deaths caused form the initial...
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...wage is raised * the fine for dishonesty is increased * the bribe received is reduced Rovuma basin 100 tcf recoverable reserves; 277 tcf resource base Monetization projects * Scenario 1: two trains THE ANALYSIS Production parameters used * 20 yrs plant life * 10 pct discount rate (WACC: * 330 days p.a * Feedstock cost, OPEX and revenue equally distributed * CFs happen at end of year * PSA: Petroleum production tax (royalty) 6%; ENH 15%, IOC 85%, Corporate tax 32% * A CAPEX $30 billion (should be $20billion) for two trains DEMAND LNG * 2012: 236,2 mmt 908 bcf | 10 mmtpa- 38 bcf | Project Costs $2000/ton | $3000/ton OPEX= Liquefaction, Voyage costs Capex | OPEX (no depreciation)LIQUEFACTION | VOYAGE | | $1b p.a for 15yrs | -Liquefaction: $1.11mmbtu-Production capacity 90%9MMt-1mt=48MMbtu | 66000mt-vesselDuration: 6969nm in 15 days | | | 9MMT*48,7= 438.300.000MMBtu | FUEL | | | 438.300.000MMBtu*$1.11=$486.513.000 | | | LNG Assessments and Netbacks The value of LNG globally is assessed by Plats using its MOC (Market on Close) assessment process. This MOC establishes: * Core standards for how data is collected and published * How data is prioritized by value * How daya is analyzed in the course of Standard cargoes 135 000- 175 000 cu m Qatari Q-Flex: 210 000 cu m...
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...predictions, effects and sources. The aim of this symposium was to inform the students, faculty members, administrators and those of general services of the necessary precautions to prevent further damage that may happen during earthquakes. Information, preparedness and understanding of these natural hazards are needed to reduce the loss of life and limb. An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking or rolling of the Earth. In the Philippines, about 20 earthquakes are recorded per day and 200 per year. For the past 400 years, the Philippines had experienced about 90 destructive earthquakes one for every five years. Earthquakes happen because of volcanic activity and tectonic movements. It results to fault rupture, tsunami, ground shaking, liquefaction, landslide and fire. Faults- fractures where earthquake originates, there are different types of fault: strike slip, normal and thrust. Active faults move up & down while trenches move toward each other. The Valley Fault System has two segments, the East Valley Fault the West Valley Fault which covers Quezon, Marikina, Pasig, Makati, Pateros, Taguig and Muntinlupa. It has moved four times from the past 1600 years (an average of 400 years) per movement, generating earthquakes of magnitude 7. Magnitude is the energy released at origin which differs from intensity- the perceived strength at the surface. Epicenter is the point at the earth surface directly above where the earthquake generated while focus- center of energy...
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...Los Angeles is one of the largest cities in the United States and one with the highest risk of earthquakes. Los Angeles is an urban environment that has high infrastructure which increases hazards associated with earthquakes. There are many factors that lead to the current knowledge of past, current, and future earthquakes occurrences. We are better able to understand where and why earthquakes are likely to occur and to be proactive to their hazards. Los Angeles is located approximately 60 miles from the largest and most active fault line in the United States. The San Andreas Fault line is the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. These tectonic plates slide past each other breaking rock, creating shaking and seismic waves in every direction. This shaking is what we know as earthquakes and the seismic waves are how they are rated based on severity. The L.A. area is located where slip rate of the plates is well known. The slip rates of the San Andreas Fault is calculated by its size and the rate that one plate moves compared to the other. The soft soil and near surface materials have low wave velocity which create more shaking as compared to hard rock. Observing the shear wave velocity can assist in estimating potential seismic activity. Energy released from slipping rocks on the fault line can travel many miles. The location at which this slip occurs is known as the focus and epicenter is directly above the focus on the earth’s surface. Earthquakes...
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...Discuss the view that the impact of earthquakes depends primarily on human factors: Earthquakes are caused by movement of tectonic plates that covering the earth’s surface. They occur at all plate boundaries; destructive, constructive and conservative, but the most intense tend to occur at subduction zones and conservative faults, such as the San Andres Fault in California. Every seismic event will be unique, and there are many factors influencing the extent to which it will have an impact on the environment and the populace. In many situations, both physical factors, related to the nature of the event and the topography of the area, and human factors, linked to demography and land use, have an influence on the effects of a hazard. When evaluating the impacts of an earthquake, the demography of an area will almost certainly have a large influence. Clearly, a very densely populated area will be more likely to have a higher death toll or a wider radius of influence than an event occurring in a more sparsely populated area, due to the simple fact that there are more people in the same amount of space to be affected. However it is not just this statistical fact that leads to a more people being affected. In many LEDC’s, the highest population density occurs in slum areas and shanty towns. The people living in these areas are ill equipped to cope with the effects of an earthquake due to a combination of factors, mostly centred around the conditions in which they live. The same is true...
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...Poster PO-39 NATURAL GAS LIQUEFACTION PROCESSES COMPARISON COMPARAISON ENTRE PROCEDES DE LIQUEFACTION DE GAZ NATUREL Pierre-Yves Martin Jérôme Pigourier Axens (France) www.axens.fr Béatrice Fischer IFP (France) ABSTRACT This paper presents Axens efforts to compare LiquefinTM with the competing process, specially the reputed most efficient ones: C3/MR, C3/MR followed by nitrogen cycle, dual mixed refrigerant process with spiral wound exchangers. To compare properly one process to another, it must be done with the same gas, with the same site conditions, with the same gas turbines and with the same cooling medium temperature (air or water). That done, to compare processes like for like is still not that easy. For instance, it seems fair to take the same efficiencies for the compressors, however, axial and centrifugal compressors do have different efficiencies. Similarly, equal basis leads to have the same temperature approach for the air-cooler (or water coolers), however between mixed refrigerant and propane, the heat exchange area will be much lower for mixed refrigerant if the approach is kept identical. The end flash vapour quantity has also a big influence on the process efficiency, but each process has a different fuel gas consumption. Those added factors may lead to wide differences. Axens has calculated the effect of all those parameters on efficiency. The equipment characteristics play also an important role in the comparison: the limitations of axial compressors...
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...demolition. This could lead to stress about rebuilding houses and insurance claims. Many cliff faces had been savourily damaged which is a hazard to Christchurch residents , as inhaling the dust is harmful to the human body and may result in medical assistance. With unemployment it may be hard for Christchurch residents to afford these trips to the medical centre and to supply the needs for their family. This is also unfortunate as Christchurch will not attract many tourists as it is considered to be 'unsafe' . Christchurch's Cathedral (heritage building) has been completely shattered by this devastating earthquake causing millions to rebuild. (NATURAL) One natural implication was Liquefaction . It causes damage to the ground because the soil mass decreases in volume.As a result of liquefaction, the ground surface may subside. In Christchurch Liquidation is occurring mainly around the Avon River , it is spread over an area of about 7 by 7 kilometres . Buildings, bridges and sewage pipes have been damaged as a result . This is dangerous to Christchurch residents because (NATURAL) One effect an earthquake has on the land is landslides, this is when a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls in slopes. This is very dangerous to Christchurch residents because building can...
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