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人文主义文学的起源与发展
摘要:
文艺复兴时期,欧洲文学的主流是人文主义文学。人文主义文学是表达人文主义思想的世俗文学,反映了新兴资产阶级思想。人文主义文学继承和发展了古代希腊,罗马文学中的现实主义传统,在文艺和现实的关系,文艺的社会作用和文艺的语言、体裁、技巧等方面,都有许多新突破,有力的表现了人文主义文学反封建、反教会的思想内容,体现出人文主义文学的丰富性、多样性,对欧洲后代文学的发展产生了巨大影响。人文主义文学分为三个发展阶段,在意大利,法国,西班牙,英国等国取得了较大的成就。
关键词:人文主义文学;起源;发展
引言:
文艺复习是欧洲历史上一场意义重大的文化变革运动,而作为其核心思想的人文主义贯穿于从中世纪向现代社会过渡的这一漫长的历史时期,对欧洲文学的发展与变革产生了深远影响。在文艺复兴的300多年间,人文主义贯穿于欧洲文学,使意大利、法国、西班牙、英国等主要欧洲国家的文学在题材、语言、思想内容上有了空前的突破,使欧洲文学呈现出空前的繁荣,对欧洲后代文学的发展产生了巨大影响。对于学习英国文学的学生,了解和掌握人文主义文学的起源,在不同时期不同国家的发展历程及特点是非常有必要的。
文艺复兴时期形成的想新的资产阶级思想体系被称为人文主义。人文主义(humanism)一词来自拉丁文humanitatis ,原意指意大利中世纪晚期出现的人文学科。文艺复兴兴起后,人文主义一词与当时高度重视人及其作用的思潮联系起来,内涵更加丰富。
文艺复兴是十四世纪到十七世纪初欧洲封建社会开始解体,资本主义生产方式正在形成过程中的产物。她是新兴资产阶级反封建、反教会的思想文化运动,它的指导思想是与封建神学相对立的,以人为中心的人文主义。文艺复兴时期的人文主义文学是新兴资产阶级反封建斗争的重要武器。
人文主义是在反对中世纪基督教神学和对人的重新理解的过程中发展起来的。它主张一切以人为本,反对神绝对权威,强调以人作为衡量万事万物的尺度和标准,宣扬个性解放,重视人的价值,把人从中世纪的神学枷锁下解放出来。反对基督教神学的禁欲主义和来世思想,肯定人有追求现实幸福和世俗享乐的权利;追求自由平等,反对等级观念:崇尚理性,崇尚知识与创造,反对蒙昧。
文艺复兴时期的欧洲新兴文学以人文主义思想为内容,故被称为人文主义文学。它呈现出崭新的文化特质和独特的艺术品格:
一、反对神权,神性,宣扬人权人性。人文主义作家以现实为模板摹本,从普遍人性的观念出发,以人的尘世生活为中心,以市民生活为重要描写对象,对天主教会的种种倒行逆施进行了辛辣的讽刺和揭露,歌颂人的力量,肯定人的价值。 二、创作方法上现实主义与浪漫主义的有机结合。不同于中世纪文学的超验性和虚幻性,人文主义文学第一次把可感的现实世界和世俗人生呈现在读者面前。不仅丰富和发展了欧洲文学中的现实主义传统,也善于利用中世纪民间故事和骑士文学中的浪漫主义元素,实现了现实与幻想的有机结合。
三、民族意识的觉醒和民族性的追求。文艺复兴时期是欧洲民族现代国家的形成时期, 民族文学形成的时期。当时欧洲一些主要国家建立了中央集权的君主政体,民族国家开始形成,民族意识高涨,人文主义作家的作品反映民族历史的内容,提出有关国家命运的问题,爱国主义激情。多数作家放弃了通用的拉丁文而改用民族语言写作,他们从古代的民间的语言中汲取营养,大大促进了民族语言的发展。
四、巴洛克风格的转向。16世纪后期至17世纪初,人文主义文学在走向高潮之际,收到了巴洛克风格的影响。“巴洛克”是一个艺术批评用语,特指产生于16世纪后期,兴盛于17世纪的一种艺术风格,其特点是宏达、华丽、雕饰、扭曲、夸张,与文艺复兴兴盛时期艺术中的和谐、典雅、静穆、匀称、明朗风格形成鲜明对比。人文主义在现实中的受挫,教会力量的反扑,社会的动荡,思想的混乱和人心的迷茫是巴洛克风格产生的重要原因。
五、为适应文学表现新时代,新生活的需要,人文主义作家不仅改造了已有的抒情诗、叙事诗、戏剧等题材,使之更富于表现力,同时,还创制了许多新的文学体裁,如十四行诗、短篇小说、长篇小说、随笔式散文等。在以后的几个世纪里,它们不断发展、完善,对西方文学的繁荣和丰富,作出了重要贡献。
人文主义文学,从产生到衰落,经历了长达三百年的时间,大体上可分为以下三个阶段:。14世纪初至15世纪中叶为人文主义文学产生与发展的早期,人文主义文学出现在文艺复兴运动的发源地意大利产生了诗人彼得拉克和小说家薄伽丘。此时人文主义文学的基本特点是,在14世纪初的社会历史条件下,当时的人文主义作家对基督教神学本质的认识还没有达到后来那种科学理性的程度,他们更多地是从神权否定人权、神性排斥人性等感性角度,感受到了神学体系的不合理。这样,强调个性解放和享受世俗生活就成了当时人文主义文学家对神学体系否定的主要方式。15世纪下半叶至16世纪上半叶,是人文主义文学发展的中期,十五、十六世纪以后,随着资本主义生产关系在西欧各国的发展,人文主义文学也相继在欧洲各国出现。到了十六世纪中叶,法国人文主义文学进入了全盛时期,“七星诗社”的诗歌和拉伯雷的长篇小说为世人所瞩目。在早期创作的基础上,随着人们认识的深化,新的一代人文主义作家愈来愈感到,单纯地讴歌人的本能欲望和展示个性要求,这是对人本身缺乏深入认识的反映。他们认为,既然人可以通过自己的理性和才能创造出从未有过的奇迹,那么,只有把人的巨人风采和理性力量展现出来,才能更清楚地反映人在世界中的地位,才能真正理解人的价值和尊严。所以,描绘巨人的形象,展示巨人的思想和行动就渐渐成为第二个时期人文主义文学的主导趋势。到了十六世纪后期至十七世纪初,人文主义文学在西班牙和英国得到了高度发展,进入了繁荣阶段,产生了塞万提斯、莎士比亚等文学大家。他们分别在小说和戏剧领域写出了世界文学名著,为欧洲和世界文学做出了巨大贡献。在这一阶段的人文主义文学中,除前两个时期的讴歌人性和展示巨人风范两种主题仍然被加以表现外,对人自身矛盾的关注,进而言之,对由于人性的弱点所造成的社会丑恶现象的探讨成为此时文学的基本任务。这种对人自身及人与世界关系的认识,客观上既是对人文主义进步性与局限性的艺术总结的反映,同时也更具有否定神学体系的巨大价值:它说明人不仅是自己欲望情感和行动的主宰,同时人的自身矛盾和行动也决定着社会关系的发展和演进。社会上的一切矛盾、运动、发展乃至斗争,均是由人而非神造成的。
300年的时间里,人文主义文学在意大利、法国、西班牙、英国等国家取得了较大的成就。
意大利文学:
意大利是在欧洲出现的第一个资本主义国家。资本主义的萌芽和发展,为意大利最早产生文艺复兴和人文主义文学提供了有利的土壤和气候,但丁的作品已经预示人文主义的倾向。14世纪,佛罗伦萨出现了人文主义文学的奠基人物彼特拉克和薄伽丘。
弗兰西斯克·彼特拉克(1304—1374)是意大利第一个人文主义者,被称为“人文主义之父”,是意大利文艺复兴“弗洛伦萨三杰”之一。他以新奇独特的诗体形式,创作出了大量富含真挚人性情感的诗作佳篇,冲破了教会禁欲主义的道德观念,表达了人文主义的新型爱情观,揭开了西方近代文学的序幕。他鼓励人们研读古希腊和罗马的著作,认为其中蕴含了重大的道德和实践价值。他最优秀的作品是用意大利语写成的《歌集》,被称为“对文艺复兴乃至十七世纪欧洲的爱情诗产生独一无二的影响”的作品。在诗歌形式上,彼特拉克成功地革新了十四行诗的题材,因此他也被誉为“十四行诗的鼻祖”,十四行诗诗体也被后人尊称为“彼特拉克体”。
乔万尼·薄伽丘(1313—1375)是意大利文艺复兴早期的人文主义者,和但丁、彼特拉克被并称为意大利文艺复兴“三杰”。《十日谈》是薄伽丘的代表作,也是欧洲文学史上第一部现实主义作品,这是一部写实主义的短篇小说集。《十日谈》中的故事取材广泛,中世纪传说、历史事件、东方民间故事、现实中的人和事都成为涉取的题材。薄伽丘在运用这些材料时突现出它们的现实性,表达了人文主义思想观点。《十日谈》揭露、批判了罗马教会的腐败和僧侣的伪善、堕落、贪婪,肯定人的本性,强调入追求现世幸福的权利,提出人与人平等的思想。《十日谈》开辟了欧洲短篇小说的艺术形式,对欧洲文学具有重要影响,成为乔叟等作家模仿的范本,莎士比亚、歌德等也运用其中的故事作为创作素材。
法国文学:
16世纪初法国出现最早的致力于古典著作研究的人文主义者,王室对于人文主义者的活动给予大力支持,人文主义思潮在文化领域迅速兴起。其文学成就主要在诗歌、小说和散文领域,代表作者分别是七星诗社诗人、拉伯雷和蒙田。七星诗社是16世纪中期法国出现的由7名诗人组成的一个文人结社。七星诗社首先以其对发展和完善法语做出的贡献而著称,主张统一民族语言,用法语写作;七星诗社诗人以身作则,在人文主义思想指导下从事的诗歌创作为法国诗坛带来了崭新的面貌。蒙田是近代欧洲散文体的创始人,他在《随笔集》中通过对自己的剖析来表达人文主义以人为本的思想,表达人个性解放的要求。弗朗索瓦·拉伯雷是16世纪法国人文主义文学的代表作家,他的《巨人传》是文艺复兴时期法国人文主义思潮的百科全书,又是16世纪法国封建社会的缩影。小说尖锐的讽刺了封建制度,揭露了教会的黑暗和中世纪教育的腐朽,开起来法国长篇小说创作的序幕。
西班牙文学:
文艺复兴时期的西班牙不仅开创了欧洲流浪汉小说的先例,而且产生了塞万提斯等文学巨匠,从而把西班牙民族文学推向了迄今无人企及的高峰,也为世界文学的发展做出了巨大的贡献,史称“黄金世纪”。塞万提斯的《堂吉诃德》是16世纪西班牙文学的最高成就,是西班牙文学史上最伟大的叙事作品。他的创作突破了前人的局限,在反映现实和塑造形象方面另辟蹊径,对欧洲现实主义长篇小说的发展具有开拓性的意义。小说借堂吉诃德之口,向往自由的、和谐共处的“黄金时代”,主张人的高贵不在血统而在于品德,认为既掌握各种科学知识又能坚持真理的勇士才是理想的“骑士”,堂吉诃德的崇高理想和百折不挠的精神,从某些侧面反映的正是人文主义者的观念和理想。
英国文学:
在文艺复兴时期的欧洲文学中,英国文学占有极其重要的地位。它的诗人、作家最多,成就最高,影响最大,堪称近代人文主义文学的高峰。文艺复兴在意大利已经开花结果时,英国还处在骑士文学的时代。英国的文艺复兴从15世纪后期开始,17世纪初落下帷幕。
英国文艺复兴时期是文学发展可分为三个阶段:
早期(15世纪末至16世纪前期)出现第一代人文主义者,托马斯·莫尔爵士最杰出。他用拉丁文写作的《乌托邦》首次以对话体小说形式揭露资本原始积累时期圈地运动造成的羊吃人的现象,描写自己心中的理想世界。只是欧洲资本原始积累时期的一部伟大的社会文献,可视为英国文艺复兴运动的真正开端。
中期(16世纪后半叶即伊丽莎白时代),英国的文艺复兴运动与人文主义文学进入鼎盛时期,出现了一大批举世闻名的诗人、小说家和戏剧家。他们的创作思想内涵宏富深刻,表现手法和艺术形式多种多样。诗歌方面以埃德蒙·斯宾塞为代表,他的长诗《仙后》是英国第一部民族史诗,他在《仙后》中创造的诗体被称为“斯宾塞诗节”。
人文主义戏剧是文艺复兴时代英国文学的主要成就。莎士比亚是文艺复兴时期英国戏剧的集大成者,他的诗歌和戏剧这些作家大都毕业于牛津或剑桥大学,创作,把欧洲人文主义文学有推向了顶峰。在莎士比亚之前活跃在舞台上的是大学才子派,这些作家大都毕业于牛津或剑桥大学。他们的创作继承和发展了古罗马剧作家塞内加的复仇悲剧、英国编年体剧和浪漫喜剧的传统,突破了中世纪神秘剧、奇迹剧、道德剧的神秘色彩,为英国民族戏剧的形成和发展立下了不朽功勋,也在不同程度上启迪了莎士比亚的戏剧艺术。马洛是“大学才子”中最重要的一位,对伊丽莎白时代戏剧发展推动很大。马洛的作品强烈地表达出对完美生活和无限知识的追求。《帖木儿》和《浮士德博士》被认为是英国最初的真正悲剧。《浮士德博士》取材德国中世纪民间传说,写浮士德把灵魂出卖给魔鬼的故事。剧中浮士德是一个人文主义者的形象,他肯定人的力量,崇尚、追求知识,体验人生的各种享受。浮士德的探索精神表现出入文主义思想的崇高境界。马洛的戏剧在莎士比亚作品成熟之前风靡英国,他的创作为莎士比亚的出现开辟了道路。
后期(1616年至17世纪40年代)已关闭伦敦剧院为标志,表面英国文艺复兴运动的衰落。
结束语:人文主义文学是文学发展史上最为璀璨的的文学发展阶段之一,是文艺复兴时期文学的主流,它是在反对中世纪基督教神学和对人的重新理解过程中发展起来的,反映了新兴资产阶级思想和对人本身的肯定和赞扬。在300多年期间,人文主义文学在欧洲主要国家经历了三个发展阶段,不断发展革新,完善,创制了许多新的文学体裁,留下了大量传世的文学精品,使西方文学得到了空前的繁荣,对后世的文学发展起到了深远的影响。
参考文献:
[1]聂珍钊主编《外国文学史(一)》 ,华中师范大学出版社,2010年第一版。
[2]上海师范大学《欧洲近代文学思潮简编》,安徽人民出版社,1980年第一版。
[3]陈建华主编《外国文学史新编》,高等教育出版社,2013年第一版。
[4]刘意青、罗经国主编《欧洲文学史(第一卷 古代至十八世纪欧洲文学)》,商务印书馆出版社,1999年版。
[5]匡兴主编《外国文学史(西方卷)》,北京师范大学出版社,2010年版。

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...Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction ‘Jonathan Culler has always been about the best person around at explaining literary theory without oversimplifying it or treating it with polemical bias. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction is an exemplary work in this genre.’ J. Hillis Miller, University of California, Irvine ‘An impressive and engaging feat of condensation . . . the avoidance of the usual plod through schools and approaches allows the reader to get straight to the heart of the crucial issue for many students, which is: why are they studying literary theory in the first place? . . . an engaging and lively book.’ Patricia Waugh, University of Durham Jonathan Culler LITERARY THEORY A Very Short Introduction 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford o x2 6 d p Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogotá Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris São Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Jonathan Culler 1997 The moral rights...

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Literature

...historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the preurban eras. The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods before being written down. As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium. In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy...

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...Symbolism, theme, and other literary elements within literature Michelle Deckard ENG125 Instructor Heather Neilson 08/18/2014 Symbolism, theme, and other literary elements within literature Literary works are a way of escaping or comparing to day to day life. Many works can grab you with extensive word usage, language, emotion, and even setting. Symbolism which is used in most literary works such as, The Worn path, by Eudora Welty and Good country people by Flannery O’Connor which also have similar themes. Theme consistent in both works is similar due to the religious nature portrayed in, The Worn path and Good country people. Though each are similar each portray a different aspect of faith, from redemption to triumph. Perception of literary elements based on the characters within each work, are portrayed differently the overall themes are similar. Symbolism can be described as one thing meaning more than its literal meaning. (Clugston, 2014) For instance, Welty’s, The Worn path, is seen instantly like: “Seem like there is chains about my feet, time I get this far, she said, in the voice of argument old people keep to use with themselves. Something always take a hold of me on this hill-pleads I should stay.” (Saunders, 1992) The worn path itself is symbolic of the journey of life that has been traveled many times over. Even the character, Phoenix Jackson, her name alone is a symbol. Phoenix is representative of a mystical bird that rises in the air...

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..."I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" of William Wordsworth The events in the poem “I wandered lonely as a cloud” are very simple but the meaning in the ancient words used in the poem makes it a bit complex. The poet while walking besides a lake alone comes across Daffodils. Daffodils are beautiful flowers, which the poet seems being swayed by the wind as he walks by a field. The experience makes the poet very happy and excited that it does not simply end at the lake. The poet carries the experience with him that every time he recalls the scene of the ‘Daffodils’ in the field it brings him so much happiness. The four stanzas of the poem provide us with the experience of the poet as he explores the beauty of nature. nguage to bring in a joyful atmosphere within the poem. Gazing is a word often used when a person is surprised or amazed at something. However, the poet repeats the word only to show disbelieve in seeing a field full of daffodils. Consequently, the poet uses the words “I gazed and gazed” to show disbelieve. Moreover, the words not only help change the mood of the poem, but also show the beauty of the nature surrounding the poet. The beauty that the poet describes only leaves a reader imagining of its beauty and joy it brings to the poet (Joplin 67). The poem is not just a reflection of the daffodils but the delight they bring once the poet sees them. In the poem, Wordsworth utilizes the natural beauty of the daffodils to bring pleasure. The poet cherishes the...

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Literature

...give for literature is "written books that have value and are timeless". The thing about good literature is that it does not have to be recent. Many works of literature from hundreds of years ago are still interesting and valueable to the modern day reader. Although times have changed, human nature really has not. People still can relate and have the same feelings as the characters in a book from centurys ago. Humans still have man vs self conflict, experience madness, jealousy, joy and sadness and can really appreciate literature that portray emotions that they have experienced. Literature can not be any old book, it has to be good. A book that does not interest the reader or provide any significant value will not stand the test of time. Good literature is drama-filled and will keep the reader on edge guessing what will come next. Also, it is helpful if the literature has a lesson or value. Humans from the 21st century are able to learn from the themes of older literature and relate them to what they have going on in their modern day lives. A meaningless book can be entertaining but will not have the same effect as a book that is able to hook the readers interest but also apply to everyday life. 3. Iv never been a person who has loved to read literature. A lot of times i have found myself bored and uninteristed in what i am reading. With that said i have learned to appreciate good literature. In my opinion the best type of literature to read is dramatic literature. Personally...

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...Short talk In students’ point of view, literature is just a subject in our school education or a compilation of various writings impart of our history. However, in its deeper sense, how literature affects our life? Literature is the body of written works of language, period or culture. It must be an analysis of experience and a synthesis of the findings into a unity. It not only describes reality but also adds to it. They are a depiction of the different facets of common man’s life. It also serves as a food for thought and a tonic for imagination and creativity. Most of all, literature offers us lessons, motivations, and inspirations that help us to develop and improve our personality. We read literary works not only neither for pleasure nor a requirements in school. Authors also write literary pieces not just to gain income nor be famous. The purpose of literature in our lives is not only to narrate the appropriate sequence of events in the story. It is also not only to have knowledge in the past and present happenings in our life but to know the hidden reasons why it is written. It is because literature improves our personality by reminding us something we neglected and forget motivates and inspires us. It teaches us how to become a better person in our society and how we can contribute to our country’s success. We must remember, you must open your mind not only for the things seen but in the things not visible that contribute a meaningful part of our...

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...im a student of english language and literature department. i want to join this cite in order to get some views relating to my homeworks. today while i was studying for my research paper about multiculturalism in america, i came across a piece of useful paper on this cite which i have thought i can be helpful for my paper. and i have wanted to read the rest of it. that is why i want to register into the cite. A self-styled "black, lesbian, mother, warrior, poet," writer Audre Lorde dedicated both her life and her creative talent to confronting and addressing the injustices of racism, sexism, and homophobia. Her poetry, and "indeed all of her writing," according to contributor Joan Martin in Black Women Writers (1950-1980): A Critical Evaluation, "rings with passion, sincerity, perception, and depth of feeling." Concerned with modern society's tendency to categorize groups of people, Lorde fought the marginalization of such categories as "lesbian" and "black woman," thereby empowering her readers to react to the prejudice in their own lives. While the widespread critical acclaim bestowed upon Lorde for dealing with lesbian topics made her a target of those opposed to her radical agenda, she continued, undaunted, to express her individuality, refusing to be silenced. As she told interviewer Charles H. Rowell in Callaloo: "My sexuality is part and parcel of who I am, and my poetry comes from the intersection of me and my worlds. . . . [White, arch-conservative senator] Jesse Helms's...

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...1. Define Literature. Explain it. Literature is the art of written or spoken works. It uses beautiful, meaningful and expressive language. Literature is an expression of thoughts, feelings and imagination through language. It represents the art of one person’s mind through various abstracts and concretive ideas translated to beautiful language that produces different representations and meanings according to the developer and his readers. Readers and listeners of this literary works may interpret the author’s ideas into them and applying them into their lives. It is also the process of encoding one’s beautiful ideas and decoding by interpreter’s imaginative mind. Events or subjects shown in these works are that of the author’s experiences, environment, culture or just a pure imagination. 2. State the classification of prose. Prose is a continual narration and written in common sentence trend. It is the most typical form of written language that uses basic and ordinary grammatical structure with natural flow of sentences or speech. There are different classifications of a prose. Myth is a story or narrative about the origin of the universe, beliefs about the gods and goddesses, stories about man and mystical and mysterious beings. Legend is a narrative or tale of human actions that orally resurfaced version of ordinary source of things. An anecdote is a short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person. Essay is written piece that often come from author’s...

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...Written by Roger McGough, “At Lunch Time – A story of Love” is a poem that encourages its addressees to seize the moment and to enjoy life while they can. This ethical value, according to Russian Formalist, is not more important as its aesthetical value of the poem. Unlike the classical approaches to literary criticism that focus both on the aesthetical and ethical dimensions of a literary text, Formalists consider that a literary work is recognized through its form rather than its meaning. Accordingly, the literary devices of a text are indispensible to bring the meaning to the surface and to shed light on the literariness of a text. Following a Formalist stance, this essay will tackle some major artistic devices, which are irony and graphological deviation, and how they defamiliarize a literary text. The striking feature about this poem is the heavily presence of situational irony. This can be seen, for instance, in the speaker’s behavior. He seizes the opportunity of making love to a completely stranger woman in a bus. Ironically, the woman’s refusal of the speaker’s repulsiveness is simply because “it was too early in the morning and too soon after breakfast”. But after that “she joined the exercise”. Situational irony does not only draw readers’ attention to the humorist representation of love making, but also draws his attention to the artfulness of the poem making it unfamiliar from texts such as a newspaper article. This literary device also reflects a message transmitted...

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...12:00 What is Literature? Poems, novels, and stories; these are some of the things that first came to my mind upon pondering on the question 'What is Literature?'. And just lately I have known that literature also includes songs, speeches, plays, and many others in written and spoken forms. I have also known that things that are produced out of creative imagination can be referred as literary works which are the ones that comprise literature. Considering this description of what literature is, the coverage of literature seems very puzzling. If literary works are those produced out of creative imagining, then it would directly point to fictional works. But then, there are also non-fictional works that are considered literary. There are literary essays and novels that are non-fictional. Examples of these are those based on true stories. Thus, literature goes beyond just creative imagination. And also, one person may consider a work produced out of creativity while another person may not, so then can that work be considered literary? Another important factor to be taken with high regard in discussing literature is periods of time since people coming from different historical periods may have different perceptions on what they consider 'literature'. It is vital to tackle these questions since literature is present in our everyday life, though it is not consciously felt by many. Terry Eagleton, a literary critic and writer, had written in his essay 'What is Literature?', “What matters...

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...Katrina Bryant ENG/301 American literature is any written work of art that is created in the United States. American literature is like all literature, it has literary experiences and contextual history of America. It depicts how America has changed is still changing today. American literature has changed over time just like most canons of literary works. The uniqueness of American literature is that America from its beginning had a special philosophy of life and freedom. The special philosophy of life and freedom that made American literature so unique was reflected in its writings. Americans believed and had faith that God was and is the given of all our rights and freedom. We as Americans had faith in ourselves that we could succeed in anything that we try doing. The literature that we Americans wrote made life worth living because it was displayed for the world to read and understand that life was what we made it. Also by Americans having the ability to spring back from diversity made life worth living and George Washington was a perfect example of this. Literary canon is basically a suggested list of readings that belongs to a country or a certain period in time. Literary canon contains literary works that is mainly by authors who are accepted as an authority in their field and their writings constituting a serious body of literature in any given language. The works that are collected that is included in a literary canon is approved largely by cultural and...

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Korean Literature

...KOREAN LITERATURE Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language and sometimes in Classical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was written in Hanja. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script. ------------------------------------------------- General overview In general, the written arts have a tradition in epigraphic inscriptions on stones, in early tombs, and on rarely found bamboo pieces that formed early books. Repeated invasions and sacking of the east and west capitals, as well as the difficulty in preserving written texts on bamboo, make works before 1000 rare. Those works were entirely written in Chinese characters, the language of scholars, but of course incorporated Korean words and mindset. Medieval scholars in Korea learned and employed written Chinese as western schoolmen learned Latin: as a lingua franca for the region. It helped cultural exchanges extensively. Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with movable type, often imperial encyclopedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo era the world's first metal type...

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