...Evaluate the following argument. More specifically, identify the premises and conclusions. Determine whether the argument is deductive, or inductive (1pt). If it is deductive, determine whether it is sound, or unsound. If it is inductive, determine whether it is cogent, or uncogent (1pt). Explain your answers (2pt). 1. 84% of Liberal voters believe Dalton McGuinty has the best leadership abilities. Natalie Smith is a Liberal voter So she probably believes that Dalton McGuinty has the best leadership abilities, too. Premises: 84% of Liberal voters believe Dalton McGuinty has the best leadership abilities. Natalie Smith is a Liberal voter Conclusion: So she probably believes that Dalton McGuinty has the best leadership abilities, too. This is an inductive, cogent, argument. The conclusion of this argument can be identified via the conclusion indicator ‘so.’ The premises can be identified using the ‘because trick.’ The arguer believes that Natalie thinks McGuinty has the best leadership abilities, because 84% of Liberal voters think McGuinty has the best leadership abilities, and because Natalie is a Liberal voter. We can tell the argument is inductive since: 1) It fits the common pattern of inductive argument known as ‘statistical argument;’ moreover, 2) It fails the strict necessity test, since it is possible for each of the premises to be true but the conclusion false; and finally and most obviously 3) its conclusion contains the induction...
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...Beliefs According to the dictionary theology is defined as “the field of study and analysis that treats of God and of God's attributes and relations to the universe; study of divine things or religious truth; divinity”. (Theology, n.d) The term theology derives from two Greek words when joined means “the study of God.” Theology studies focus on the nature of God and different religious beliefs. Whereas, philosophy focuses on the study or creation theories of the more simple things in life. The term philosophy is also derived from two words, which stands for love and wisdom. According to the dictionary philosophy is defined as “the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct”. (Philosophy, n.d) For example, thought and how we should live, and the existence of nature. So, basically theology is becoming familiarized with GOD and concentrating on how and when he functioned as he did. Philosophy, on the other hand, is focusing on the more expanded meanings and positions. Ethics is the study of the general nature of morals and of the specific moral choices to be made by a person; moral philosophy (Ethics, n.d). There are three schools when determining and understanding the process of ethics. The three schools of ethics are virtue, consequentialist, and deontological. Each of these schools holds importance but are nothing without the other. All three of these are needed to come to the best ethical decision. When talking about...
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...Part 1 1. What is Philosophy? Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other. As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most basic questions. To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided into major areas of study. Source: http://philosophy.fsu.edu/content/view/full/36588 2. What are the benefits of Studying Philosophy? Studying philosophy improves reasoning and critical skills. Skills gained by philosophy majors are useful in almost any career. * The ability to think logically * The ability to analyze and solve problems * The ability to assess proposed solutions * The ability to write and speak clearly, attending to details Students learn about questions. How to ask good questions and distinguish the worthwhile from the worthless questions. How to divide, prioritize, and simplify questions. Students are affected by learning about questions. * Studying questions liberates us from prejudice * It helps us to think independently, thus, promoting autonomy, self-government, and individuation * It broadens our perspective on life The study of philosophy benefits students intellectually...
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...Study Guide: Lesson 4 A Little Logic Lesson Overview Logic is the primary tool or methodology in studying philosophy. Philosophy is about analyzing and constructing arguments and a good understanding of the basics of logical reasoning is essential in performing that task. The next 3 lessons will focus on logic and analyzing arguments. In this lesson, you will first be introduced to the laws of logic. These are the first principles for all reasoning. We will then discuss the specialized terminology we use in logic. Finally, we will examine 2 major kinds of logical reasoning: deductive and inductive. We will consider different forms of arguments under each and discuss how to evaluate these arguments. Take note that a large part of this lesson is about learning the terminology for logic. Tasks Read and take notes from chapter 5 of Philosophy: Critically Thinking about Foundational Beliefs, “A Little Logic.” As you read, make sure you understand the following points and questions: * Why are the laws of logic foundational? * The Law of Logic makes discourse possible. If they are not recognized as true, than nothing we claim makes any sense. Therefore, it is important to have a firm grasp of these laws. * List and explain the 3 laws of logic. 1. Noncontradiction – “Something cannot both be and not be at the same time and in the same respect. Expressed symbolically: ~ (P•~P).² It reads, “It is not the case that there can be both P and non-P”. 2....
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...misfortune and that virtue is sufficient for happiness” (Baltzly). The stoic philosophy was and is still is very popular for many people. The stoics had a particular way of thinking that affected their thoughts on philosophy and life, physical theory, logic, and ethics. It is here where we will explore these concepts, and how they were manifested by stoic philosophers. Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic Philosophy which was founded by Zeno of Citium in the early third century, BCE. The basis for the stoicism curiosity derives from the relationship between determinism and human freedom. Determinism, essentially meaning a cause and effect relationship, or basically, that events are bound by causes and determined by prior events. This kind of philosophy was seen as a way of life, and a way to live positively with nature, as opposed to a non-implantable philosophy. Philosophy, according to the stoics was a kind of practice “in the expertise concerning what is beneficial” (Baltzly). Stoic logic has become something of its own study, as it departs from traditional Aristotelean logic. This new kind of logic was termed, “propositional logic”. Thus, this logic was concerned with the statements or propositions, rather than the terms used...
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...Work and has a price tag of $12.95. The author, D.Q. McInerny, is a professor of philosophy and has taught logic at several institutes of higher learning before ending up at Our Lady of Guadalupe Seminary in Lincoln, Nebraska. He has written works on religious philosophy and has collaborated on three text books concerning philosophy and logic. McInerny has written with conviction but believes that logic must be exercised in the educational process (McInerny, 2005). In this particular work, McInerny attempts to make his readers understand logic by seeing their surroundings and environments in an objective and critical manner (McInerny, 2005). He is able to do so in lay-man’s terms that almost any reader would be able to comprehend. This piece was written as a handbook for presenting the very basic values of logic to people who have never had the chance to practice it before. Those that have been well versed in logic before may easily lose interest in a work this simplified. Summary Being Logical is organized into five parts: 1) Preparing the Mind for Logic; 2) The Basic Principles of Logic; 3) Argument: The Language of Logic; 4) The Sources of Illogical Thinking; and 5) The Principal Forms of Illogical Thinking (McInerny, 2005). Every part is broken down further and goes more in depth to its specific components. This helps to make the teaching of logic to not be too overwhelming. The first three serve as a foundation for logical thinking. The last two sections...
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...This summary will touch on what the author says about logic, and how we can apply it to our cognitive source with the attempt of improving our thinking. When discussing logic, the author breaks his introductory topics into two categories; fallacies and definitions. Each of these also has three or more sub-categories. We will be able to take these fallacies and definitions and apply them to recognizing good logic, and poor logic. The first one I will bring up is the term Fallacy. The author defines a fallacy as, “a logical mistake in reasoning, especially one that it is tempting to make.” He tells us that what most of us define as fallacy is incorrect, at least for logical purposes. When it does not apply to logic, folks tend to think of a mistake, unbelief, or a sentence that just isn’t true all as being fallacy. He does not stop there. There are 4+ categories of fallacies in logic. The 1st one is called a petition principii which simply means, “to beg the question.” One can clearly see certain illogical statements as being fallacy when the premise is just the same, or has the same definition as the conclusion. Some even frame questions as such to answer any direct answer would be stating the premise to be true. (In response to your question in the essay, Mr. Slinker, I would have to answer with a question, “why do you think I’ve been beating my wife, and what proof do you have?”) The 2nd type of fallacy given is called ad hominem which reasonably states that instead of...
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...Barry Smith's draft @ http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/ontology_PIC.pdf Download PDF file http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/ontology_PIC.pdf ***** Adapted from Stanford Univ's KST Project @ http://www-ksl.stanford.edu/kst/what-is-an-ontology.html [KST : Knowledge Sharing Technology] What is an Ontology? By Tom Gruber ontology Page 1 Short answer: An ontology is a specification of a conceptualization. The word "ontology" seems to generate a lot of controversy in discussions about AI. It has a long history in philosophy, in which it refers to the subject of existence. It is also often confused with epistemology, which is about knowledge and knowing. In the context of knowledge sharing, I use the term ontology to mean a specification of a conceptualization. That is, an ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can exist for an agent or a community of agents. This definition is consistent with the usage of ontology as setof-concept-definitions, but more general. And it is certainly a different sense of the word than its use in philosophy. What is important is what an ontology is for. My colleagues and I have been designing ontologies for the purpose of enabling knowledge sharing and reuse. In that context, an ontology is a specification used for making ontological commitments. The formal definition of ontological commitment is given below. For pragmetic reasons, we choose...
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...which some believe count decisively against it. One of the key areas he calls into question is the argument’s dependence upon what Leibniz termed the principle of sufficient reason. In this principle an adequate explanation must be a total explanation. The universe requires an explanation of itself as a whole. But many would say, as Russell later told Copleston: “Then I can only say that you’re looking for something which can’t be got, and which one ought not to expect to get.” If you have explained each individual element of a series any explanation of the series as a whole would seem to be superfluous, and besides he says that ‘the whole’ doesn’t really exist anyway – it is ‘an arbitrary act of mind’ that makes things into wholes. What we term the ‘whole universe’ in modern physics may be only a bubble in a larger reality that we have no way of grasping. Also if we are only entitled to talk about causes when we have had experience of them, then this argument would seem to be over-stretching itself in speculating upon what it cannot know. On the other hand, there is of course a problem with stopping at a certain point and saying that we should seek no further explanation, in that it is a basic presupposition of all scientific work. However, even though a principle of rationality is that we can find an explanation for things, it is not a logical requirement – there is no guarantee that there will be one. So, I think Hume significantly weakens forms of the argument that depend on...
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...Slice of Life A Synthesis Paper on Philosophy and Logic Jonn Denzel V. Ramos BSGE-1E Does God exist? How to build an attractive city? Does life is real or just an imagination? An average person fails to answer these questions objectively, but philosophers have this will on solving these problems. Philosophy and logic are the fundamentals in search for meaning. Philosophers have these skill set which makes them think different from others, which leads and guides them to real and unbiased answer, it is a slice of life where they embrace every single moment they put up time and effort in their search for answer. Long time ago, Ancient Greeks invented philosophy as the way of thinking and asking questions about all things through its ultimate causes. Pre-Socratic Pythagoras coined the word philosophia which means “love of wisdom” or people who are faithful to wisdom as St. Thomas Aquinas called as wise man. Philosophy began to spread throughout the rest of the world, as the knowledge and discipline that engages and sharpens our reasons. There are three components of philosophy, the material object, formal object and natural scope. The material object refers to the subject being observed and finding the root cause on how it exist is its formal object. The natural scope is simply defined as natural reason which philosophers use in search for explanations. Ordinary and profound are two types of knowledge in philosophy. Ordinary knowledge is the foundation or the simplest form...
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...The Power of Logic The Power of Logic FOU RTH E DITION Frances Howard-Snyder Daniel Howard-Snyder Ryan Wasserman WESTERN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009, 2005, 2002, 1999, by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGrawHill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9 8 ISBN: 978-0-07-340737-1 MHID: 0-07-340737-2 Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan Editorial Director: Beth Mejia Sponsoring Editor: Mark Georgiev Marketing Manager: Pamela Cooper Editorial Coordinator: Briana Porco Production Editors: Melissa Williams/Melanie Field, Strawberry Field Publishing Cover Designer: Ashley Bedell Cover Photo: © Dan Trist/Corbis Media Project Manager: Thomas Brierly Production Supervisor: Louis Swaim Composition: This text was set in 10.5/12.5 Goudy by Aptara, Inc. Printing: Printed on 45# New Era Matte by R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Inc. Credits: The credits section for this book is on page 647, following the Answer Key in the back of the book, and is considered an extension of the copyright page. ...
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...SIX BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Adrienne Byrd AIU Introduction to Philosophy: PHIL201 - 1404A – 12 Jerry Nwonye February 21, 2015 Abstract The term Logic begins from two Greek words Philos and Sophia which means Adoration for Knowledge or Quest for Learning. Theory is deciphered in a wide range of routes by various savants. Plato is a widely acclaimed scholar known for his numerous philosophical studies says that, "reasoning is the securing of learning." While an alternate celebrated logician by the name of Karl Marx's states that, "logic is an understanding of the world to change." In fundamental terms rationality is the investigation of information and it is separated into six limbs known as transcendentalism, epistemology, Ethics, Aesthetics, political theory, and social theory. These extensions solicit the confusing inquiries from the world. Today we will talk about these distinctive limbs and what they intend to the world. SIX BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Metaphysics is the investigation of what's genuine and it doubts our presence and reason in life. It is thought to be the establishment of logic and without it we would be left with no clarification in respect to how we ought to manage reality. Metaphysics ask the "What is" inquiries of the world. Case in point: "Do you have a spirit?" or "Do you trust in God?" It is my conviction that we live in both a physical and otherworldly world and I say...
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...It seems to be that there are multiple different meanings that can be drawn from the question of “what is truth?” It also seems to be that no single take on that question can be deemed as indisputably correct. Whether in search of the meaning of “truth” or of the meaning of “Truth” the discussion will always boil down to there not being clear cut distinction or boundary between true and false. This last statement is applicable to the Liar’s Paradox, where the paradox analyzes the logic behind statements such as “this sentence is a lie;” the contentious point being to try and decipher whether it is true that the sentence is a lie and therefore the sentence is false, or whether the sentence’s being true means that the sentence lies about it itself being a lie and is, in fact, true. It seems less applicable to say that there is not a clear cut boundary between truth and falsehood, however, with such statements as “it is true that the Earth is round.” On the contrary, in this case it seems very clear cut that it is in fact true that the Earth is round. No one can argue otherwise without quickly being shown contradictory proof (barring any sort of infinite regress of truth in the epistemological sense, which is not a practical argument in this sense as that would only dispute that we cannot be aware of truth, not that truth exists or that it is able to be known). The point remains, however, that there are situations in which true and false are not easily discernible. What,...
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...philosophy of language, we wouldn't have the knowledge to build computers. Perhaps computers could be attributed as the major contributors to the advancements that we have seen in our society. Computers have infinitely impacted the way that we approach the world, its impacted the food we eat, security (for better and worse), scholarly pursuits, social networking, etc. its hard to imagine a world that doesn't have computers; without computers we wouldn't have all the inventions and services that have come about because of them. It was the work of four philosophers / logicians: Gottfried Leibniz, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Alan Turning. Leibniz invented the binary number system which allows all number to be expressed in terms of 0's and 1's. By expressing the numbers as 0's and 1's all you need is a register which has only has to process two options: on and off. But programming in bits is very slow and tedious: failing to get input the right bit in a code that consist of thousands of switches will cause the entire program to fail. Once more programming in machine language is very repetitious. When writing a program in macing language you would see that you reuse a lot of the same code over and over which creates more data for the programmer to work with....
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...play a keen role in eliminating verbal disputes. The best way to avoid verbal disagreements in belief is to define one’s terms clearly (Hall). However, there are numerous uses of definitions that play an important role in logic. Before we dive into categorizing the different definitions, one should note that definitions are merely definitions of symbols, this is because only symbols have meanings that may be explained. There are mainly five types of definitions used, all of which relying on how and in what context they are used (Copi, Cohen and Mcmahon). Stipulative definition A definition with a meaning purposefully assigned to a symbol is most often termed as a Stipulative definition (Copi, Cohen and Mcmahon)....
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