...updated: April 26, 2016 Logical Reasoning Bradley H. Dowden Philosophy Department California State University Sacramento Sacramento, CA 95819 USA ii iii Preface Copyright © 2011-14 by Bradley H. Dowden This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. That is, you are free to share, copy, distribute, store, and transmit all or any part of the work under the following conditions: (1) Attribution You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author, namely by citing his name, the book title, and the relevant page numbers (but not in any way that suggests that the book Logical Reasoning or its author endorse you or your use of the work). (2) Noncommercial You may not use this work for commercial purposes (for example, by inserting passages into a book that is sold to students). (3) No Derivative Works You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. An earlier version of the book was published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights to the original author, Bradley Dowden. The current version has been significantly revised. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author would appreciate your writing to him at dowden@csus.edu. iv Praise Comments on the earlier 1993 edition...
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...10/15/13 Search Of Cubes and Matchsticks - Logical Reasoning Tricks for CAT 2011 : PaGaLGuY News & Channels Home News Forums Mocks Apps Advertisements Login Of Cubes and Matchsticks - Logical Reasoning Tricks for CAT 2011 by Ravi Handa in MBA Entrance Hacks • 29 September '11 nick password Remember me • Login Forgot password? New to PaGaLGuY? First Name Last Name E-Mail Address Sign Up Advertisements Sponsored Users IMI.NewDelhi 131 Posts • Follow misbpgpb 151 Posts • Follow (Photo credit: Orin Zebest) If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic. Tweedledee in Lewis Carolls Through the Looking Glass. If the above line confused you, trust me you are not alone. Even God can vanish in a puff of logic. To know how, you can probably jump to the end of this post. To those who choose not to skip let us discuss a few common types of Logical Reasoning problems. Type 1: Cube problems A cube is given with an edge of unit N. It is painted on all faces. It is cut into smaller cubes of edge of unit n. How many cubes will have x faces painted? In these types of questions, the first thing that we need to figure out is the number of smaller cubes. For this, we look at one particular edge of the big cube and figure out how many smaller cubes can fit into this. It will be N/n. So, the number of smaller cubes will be (N/n)3 A cube has 6 faces and none of the smaller cubes will...
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...Pure Logic vs. Scientific Logic “Reasoning is an art, and reasoning about the natural world is the art that lies at the base of science” (Castel and Sismondo 55). Pure logic is “a form of reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of validity” (Oxford Dictionaries). In contrast, scientific logic is a form of reasoning in which a logical thought process is used to conduct experiments and research in order to reach a valid conclusion. Altogether, pure and scientific logic are different forms of reasoning used to solve everyday problems in life; yet, it is ‘scientific logic’ that is more prevalent in solving everyday problems, including critical interpretations of major problems on earth. Scientific logic is the best choice to cope with life problems in the midst of global issues; it helps facilitate our logical expertise in daily matters; it is both predictable and reliable; and on a greater scale, scientific logic helps us deal with the widespread problems on earth. With the growth of science and new emerging technologies, life is becoming more complicated, therefore relying purely on logic is insufficient. “Most of the time very little follows logically from what we know, and when we think that it does we learn that most of our knowledge consists of generalizations that don’t hold 100 percent of the time” (Castel and Sismondo 71). People live in a world of probability and because “scientific reasoning develops over time,” (Castel and Sismondo 74) they...
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...people break down to find solutions to problems and issues. Normally, in the workplace, one will find that diverse thinking styles exist for complex situations more often than in daily life. Three styles of thinking in the discussion below are creative, persuasive, and logical thinking (Kirby & Goodpaster, 2007). Logical Thinking Thinking logically is a skill that the American workforce consistently uses to bring about an end to issues. Logical thinking comes from two forms of reasoning called deductive and inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning observes situations and forms conclusions but does not ensure certainty (Kirby & Goodpaster, 2007). Deductive reasoning accepts premises and settles on logical conclusions based on evidence from the premise (Kirby & Goodpaster, 2007). This reasoning takes place in the human mind because it is taught from the formal rules of logic, and is popular thinking among critical thinkers. According to the Journal of Healthcare Management, “Individuals can implement several strategies to improve their strategic thinking ability, including deliberately incorporating the requisite experiences into their development plans, ensuring the required characteristics of reasoning, and recognizing that it is a key leadership requirement,” (Goldman, Cahill, & Filho, p. 403, 2009). Creative Thinking Creative thinking is using creativity to turn something old new again. This can be accomplished by taking the old and mixing it, moving it, breaking...
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... Thinking and Decision Making Logical Thinking Everyone is born with the ability to reason, even on a primary level. Logical thinking is a process in solving problems that requires reasoning. The word logic is from ancient Greek. Logic is a science that studies the principles of correct reasoning. There are two types of logical reasoning induction and deduction. Inductive reasoning is also known as inductive logic is the process of reasoning for specific evidence, observation, or experimentation. Inductive reasoning individuals do every day in his or her lives. Deductive thinking is also known as deductive logic the process of reasoning based on common knowledge. A logical thinker needs to recognize illogical thinking. Critical thinkers will ask questions to determine if the issue is logical or illogical for instance; do the pieces fit together logically? Are you really sure this makes sense? Are you certain it is in the publication? It is imperative the questions that are asked needs to be specific and precise to the situation or issue. If there is any inconsistences exist when finish asking the questions it is more likely the thinking path is illogical. It is important for logical thinkers to follow the facts for creditability to the situation or issue. In another words “When the combined thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is logical” (Paul & Elder, 2006, p. 95). It is clear logical thinking is the foundation to critical...
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...There are various types of thinking styles that help people try to make sense of why people make the decisions that they do in based on different situations. Three examples of thinking styles are emotional thinking, logical thinking, and optimistic thinking. All three of these thinking styles have differences, similarities, and weaknesses. An emotional thinker has four types of abilities. First ability: perceiving with this ability they can detect and read emotions on faces, pictures and voices. Second ability: using emotions with this ability they can change their moods to best fit the situation. Third ability: understanding emotions with this ability they can comprehend emotional language and understand complicated situations among emotions. The final ability is managing emotions, with this ability they can regulate emotions regardless of the mood of the other person and get to the solution. A logical thinker is one that thinks coherently and logical or reasoning. Unlike the emotional thinker, the logical thinker uses their mind rather using their emotions. This is considered to be a cognitive skill and is abstract thinkers. The logical thinker always thinks things through and needs reasoning to get to the solution. They make judgments by circumstantial evidence and conclusions rather on direct observations. An optimistic thinker is one who turns negative thoughts into positive ones. They are always incorporating happiness...
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...Career Plan Activity- Reasoning Aptitude Discussion Monica Bridgewater Wilson BCOM/275 May 27, 2013 Ray Hernandez Career Plan Activity- Reasoning Aptitude Discussion Reasoning skills can be defined as one’s ability to make a sound and logical decision. It is the process of getting from the problem or task, to a solution, and getting there by reason. It is using ones common sense and basing your solutions and decisions on viable information, evidence or logical conclusions rather than ones emotion. These skills include the ability to think critically. The purpose of the assessment was to assist in getting a full understanding of one’s unique thinking style and how it can be used in attaining your career goals. The Results The results of my assessment revealed that I am focused and work well in careers where success comes from using practical skills and where thinking my is mainly logical and practical, focused on facts and the bottom line, and provides organization and follow through. It further explained that my strengths lie in adhering to values, following instructions, strategizing, innovating, Organizing, and delivering results. Thinking Style and approach to Arguments The assessment taught me that reasoning skills is necessary for effective conflict management, picking ones battles and resolving issues in the best way possible, (logical and from common sense.) Once one has learnt about ones reasoning skills they become more aware of the strengths and weakness...
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...Session 2 The Intelligence Process Information is material of every description, including that derived from observations, surveillance, reports, rumors, and other sources. The information itself may be true or false, accurate or inaccurate, confirmed or unconfirmed, relevant or irrelevant. Although the intelligence process requires that information be stored, organized, and retrieved, the production of intelligence requires much more. Intelligence is the product resulting from the collection, evaluation and interpretation of information. Thus, intelligence can be viewed as information to which something has been added. The something added is the result of analysis—an explanation of what the information means. Intelligence may be general or specialized in nature. General intelligence focuses on a broad range of criminal activities, typically in smaller agencies or jurisdictions. Specialized intelligence focuses on a particular type of criminal activity or entity, such as narcotics, industrial espionage, or organized crime. Intelligence has both tactical and strategic applications. Tactical intelligence is directed towards a short term law enforcement objective or active case, with an immediate impact in mind—arrest, forfeiture, seizure. Strategic intelligence deals with larger, more long-term issues and goals, such as the identification of major criminal individuals or syndicates, projections of growth in types of criminal activity, and the establishment...
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...generates various questions. Creative thinking affects critical thinking by using techniques such as brainstorming to allow the creative thinker to come up with possible solutions to a problem. Creative thinking is different from logical and scientific thinking because it allows the ability to solve problems with a proactive point of view and focuses on various thoughts and multiple solutions. Logical thinking Logical thinking includes the process of analyzing, reasoning, understanding and the dynamic of thinking that would achieve a specific target objective. Logical thinking is very important in critical thinking because it affects the final decision and a better solution. Logical thinking includes categorical syllogisms, hypothetical, and the disjunctive. Logical thinkers derive at solutions based on specific premises that provide insight into a specific solution while creative thinkers focuses on various thoughts and multiple solutions. Scientific thinking Scientific thinking uses the cause and effect relationship to analyze possible solutions to an identified problem. The process used observation, hypotheses formulation, experimentation, and verification. The scientific method is different from creative and logical thinking process because it is based on experiment and repeated empirical evidence. The scientific method allows...
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...Influence of Moral Reasoning Mark R. Mitchell CRT/205 December 1, 2013 Rahana Schmalacker Influence of Moral Reasoning In accordance with this assignment to choose a person that is involved with the article chosen from the Opposing Viewpoint Resource Center, The article that I chose was “Superintendent, principal and two coaches charged in fallout from Steubenville student rape”, and the person that I chose was the Ohio State Attorney General. As to the actions taken by the attorney general was to charge four more adults with crimes that relate to the student rape case. This occurring after the Grand Jury spent eight months investigating the case. The four include two coaches, the principle, and the Steubenville School Superintendent, the charges range from tampering and obstruction to failing to reporting child abuse. Henceforth the impact of these actions is the four will be held over for trial and possibly result in serving time in prison or be acquitted of these crimes. Additionally if I were the attorney general I feel that I would also bring these charges and prosecute to the fullest extent that the law would allow. I would also use this to show that there should not be a place in any school system in the country that the lack of action to protect children entrusted to their care will not be tolerated, and the punishment...
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...Nature of Logic to Critical Thinking Introduction Alliance in the workplace is inevitable as a successful working team member becomes familiar with each other. The leadership is defined and each member knows his or her function or responsibility. When problems arise that can cause deadlines to slip, the logical assumption by managers is to provide fresh insight to quickly get back on schedule. The next logical step is the introduction of a new member to that team that usually disrupts the harmony that previous success has generated and creates problems regardless of the qualification of the new member. Discussion Whenever a task is assigned with little or no margin for error and a deadline is missed, someone usually must be held accountable. This situation came about while integrating a new wireless communication system to an existing, but obsolete, hard-wired system. The time allocated to complete the integration was dependent on the assumption that it would be a seamless integration. A problem was immediately realized when the analysis of the wired and wireless system revealed that the wireless system is balanced, differential microphone and differential headsets do not share a common return, and the drive level in one direction was too low and too high in the other. Further complicating the problem was that the wired system was designed to operate with a powered microphone, needs dc voltage, and the wireless was not capable of generating that dc voltage level. ...
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...fact, it is imperative to “…develop critical-thinking skills, to recognize behavior and to understand different philosophical approaches to moral reasoning” (Manias, Monroe, & Till, 2013, Para.2). The principles and rules of critical thinking are applicable to ethical reasoning because they enable a mental process of evaluation that helps guide us to decisions based on truths and information that is verified. Ultimately, “Ethical principles mean something only when manifested in behavior. They have force only when embodied in action” (Paul & Elder, 2011, Para.5). It is only through true critical thinking analysis that our ethical reasoning will translate into exemplary forms of actions. If everyone followed the rules and guidelines of logic, there would still be a need for ethical decision making. The reason is because, “the forces that shape us and the institutions that nurture us are complex and sometimes contradictory” (Manias, Monroe, & Till, 2013, Para. 1). Much like ethics (morals, values, individual beliefs and sense of right and wrong), our logic is largely influenced by our background and experiences. Therefore it is too overwhelmed with emotion, making it unreliable for ethical decision making. If a woman finds out that the powerplant she works for is guilty of illegal dumping, her logical thought process may lead her to make a bad ethical decision for the sake of keeping her job. However, her critical thinking analysis of the same...
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...Critical Thinking Analysis of Cliffside Holding Company Memo Lisa A. Farinelli University of Maryland University College 1209 AMBA 610 9043 10/9/2012 Professor Bonnie Peter Abstract This paper demonstrates the application of the critical thinking and systems thinking models to analyze complex organizational issues. To illustrate the benefits of using such a model, one sample memo originating from a Cliffside Holding Company of Massapequa will be referenced. The 10-steps of Critical Thinking defined in asking the Right Questions, Browne (2012) will guide this discussion. A summation of findings and suggestions for future readings concludes this discussion. Asking the Right Questions What are the issue and conclusions? The first step to appreciating the authenticity and credibility of the work is to identify the issue as well as the conclusion purported by its author. Browne (2012) defines the issue as the question or controversy that is responsible for the discussion, the actual stimulus (p. 19). In the memo by A. Ravaswami to one of his colleagues, the issue raised is whether a leadership development program is even necessary (A. Ravaswami, personal communication, October 10, 2012). This is an example of an explicitly stated prescriptive issue. The author is raising the question as to what is the proper route for training his top-level executives. The answer to this will involve ethical, moral and personal viewpoints and is therefore a prescriptive issue...
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...God would keep his son safe. Abraham’s story is a prime example of reasoning and biblical faith. Biblical faith is being able to believe in something that one has not been able to experience with their own senses. Biblical faith allows one to have a reason to trust and have faith in God. Faith does not mean one is simply believing in something without reason. Reasoning is a tool that God gave humans to allow them to have intellectual thoughts. Reasoning is something that allows one to decipher the information that God has placed into the world He built. In today’s world there is this constant battle on whether a person should live by faith, by reason, or by both. Philosophy shows that it takes faith to have reason. Even though I knew when Abraham was called to sacrifice his son, Isaac, it was not an act of blind faith. Reading it in the context that Mr. Foreman put it in made me view it in a different way. When someone has blind faith in something, they are running full speed ahead without logical reasoning. It is almost like running into a fire with your eyes shut. This is not what Abraham did. Abraham was able to take a step back and realize that since God was found to be faithful at other times, there was not a logical reason to assume God would all of a sudden not be faithful. God made a promise to Abraham. When Abraham believed God would keep that promise, he was using faith. He was using faith with reasoning because he believed in something that could not been seen. God, himself...
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...of Logical Reasoning The Logical Reasoning Section The focus of this book is on the Logical Reasoning section of the LSAT, and each Logical Reasoning section contains a total of 24 to 26 questions. Since you have thirty-five minutes to complete the section, you have an average of approximately one minute and twenty-five seconds to complete each question. Of course, the amount of time you spend on each question will vary with the difficulty of each question and the total number of questions per section. For virtually all students the time constraint is a major obstacle, and as we progress through this book we will discuss time management techniques as well as time-saving techniques that you can employ within the section. The Section Directions Each Logical Reasoning section is prefaced by the following directions: “The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.” On average, you have 1 minute and 25 seconds to complete each question. Because these directions precede every Logical Reasoning section...
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