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PENGENALAN

Terdapat tiga sektor terpenting dalam struktur pengeluaran ekonomi Malaysia iaitu sektor pertama, sektor kedua, dan sektor ketiga. Sektor pertama terdiri daripada aktiviti-aktiviti pertanian, perikanan, perhutanan, perlombongan, dan kuari. Sektor kedua terdiri daripada aktiviti-aktiviti pembinaan dan pembuatan sementara sektor ketiga ialah sektor perkhidmatan seperti elektrik, gas dan air, pengangkutan, penyimpanan dan perhubungan, perdagangan borong dan runcit serta perkhidmatan. Dengan perkataan lain, tiga sektor tersebut memberikan gambaran jenis-jenis pekerjaan bagi kaum Melayu, Cina, India, dan lain-lain di Malaysia iaitu ada yang terlibat dengan sektor pertama, ada yang terlibat dengan sektor kedua dan ketiga. (Lehar, 1998)

ISU-ISU EKONOMI DI MALAYSIA

Setiap negara di dunia menghadapi masalah sosial dan ekonominya sendiri. Negara kita juga tidak dapat lari daripada masalah-masalahnya. Beberapa isu ekonomi telah dihadapi oleh negara sejak merdeka lagi dan sebahagiannya masih lagi dirasai. Isu-isu ini adalah seperti berikut.

1) Pergantungan Eksport

Warisan dari dasar dan pentadbiran penjajah British telah menyebabkan ekonomi negara bergantung kepada pengeluaran dan eksport dua komoditi utama iaitu getah dan bijih timah di Semenanjung, tumpuan eksport ialah lada hitam dan petroleum di Sarawak, dan kayu balak di Sabah. Sebelum merdeka, pendapatan dari eksport kasar merupakan lebih 45 peratus daripada KDNK dan 85 peratus dari jumlah tersebut dating dari eksport getah dan bijih timah. (Lehar, 1998)

Pergantungan yang keterlaluan adalah kurang menguntungkan kerana pendapatan negara selalu tidak stabil akibat turun naik harga dan permintaan di pasaran dunia. Walau bagaimanapun, masalah ini telah dapat diatasi apabila kerajaan mula menjalankan strategi kepelbagaian dari sejak kemerdekaan hingga kini. Eksport negara sekarang adalah lebih dipelbagaikan. Ia meliputi eksport komoditi utama pertanian dan galian, eksport barangan pembuatan dan eksport barangan berasaskan pertanian. (Lehar, 1998)

2) Pendapatan dan Agihan Pendapatan

Sungguhpun kemajuan besar telah dicapai dalam usaha memperbaiki agihan pendapatan di bawah Dasar Ekonomi Baru (DEB), perbezaan pendapatan dan ketidakseimbangan sosio-ekonomi di dalam negara masih lagi luas dari segi kumpulan etnik.

Pada tahun 1957-1958, pendapatan purata isi rumah penduduk luar bandar ialah RM 170 berbanding RM 261 di Bandar. Dalam tempoh yang sama, pendapatan purata kaum Melayu hanyalah RM 144 berbanding RM 272 bagi kaum Cina. Situasi ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan jadual berikut. (Lehar, 1998)

Pendapatan Purata Sebulan Isi Rumah Semenanjung Malaysia (1957-1987) (1990 dan 1995)

Kawasan/Kaum | Pendapatan Purata Bulanan Isi Rumah | | 1957/58RM | 1970RM | 1987*RM | 1990RM | 1995RM | KawasanSemenanjung MalaysiaLuar BandarBandarKaumMelayu/BumiputeraCinaIndia | 199170261144272217 | 264200428172394304 | 474376647383631481 | 1167951161794016311209 | 200713002596160028952153 | Nota: * Pada harga tetap 1970 Data bagi tahun 1990 dan 1995 adalah merujuk kepada Malaysia keseluruhannya. Sumber: RRJP 2 (1991-2000), RME (1991-1995), RMT (1996-2000), dan Chamhuri Siwar.

Keadaan seperti ini berterusan sehingga dekad 1980-an. Misalnya pada tahun 1987, pendapatan purata bulanan isi rumah di luar bandar ialah RM 376 berbanding RM 647 di bandar. Begitu juga dengan agihan pendapatan antara kaum di mana kaum Melayu hanya RM 383 berbanding Cina RM 631. Pada tahun 1995, bagi Negara Malaysia, pendapatan penduduk bandar (RM 2596) adalah jauh melebihi pendapatan penduduk luar bandar (RM 1300). Sementara pendapatan purata bulanan kaum Melayu masih ketinggalan dibandingkan dengan kaum Cina dan India sehingga kini. (Lehar, 1998)

3) Ekonomi Dualisme

Masalah ekonomi dualisme paling ketara dalam sektor pertanian di mana terus wujud sektor estet yang cekap, tersusun dan terlibat dengan pengeluaran tanaman kekal untuk dieksport dan di masa yang sama terdapat banyak kebun kecil yang kurang cekap serta tidak tersusun. Perbezaan yang sedemikian telah wujud dari sejak zaman penjajahan lagi di mana sektor ladang dimiliki oleh orang-orang Inggeris yang menumpukan kepada beberapa tanaman komersial seperti getah. (Lehar, 1998)

Selepas merdeka, kerajaan telah berusaha membangunkan sektor pertanian yang melibatkan sektor pekebun kecil. Sebahagian besar peruntukan pembangunan adalah untuk pembangunan pertanian. Pada masa ini, perbezaan tersebut semakin tidak ketara apabila wujud sektor pekebun kecil yang tersusun dan semakin cekap hasil daripada program-program sektor awam. Namun demikian, bilangan petani dan keluasan tanah pekebun kecil yang tidak tersusun masih lagi besar. (Lehar, 1998)

Dualisme juga wujud di sektor-sektor kecil penternakan dan perikanan di mana terdapat setengah-setengah pengusaha mempunyai unit-unit pengeluaran yang moden. Di masa yang sama, terdapat juga pengusaha yang mempunyai unit pengeluaran tradisional. Masalah ekonomi dualisme ini telah mengakibatkan perbezaan tingkat kecekapan, produktiviti dan daya saing serta menjejaskan pendapatan dalam kalangan kaum bumiputera di Malaysia. Namun, hal ini berbeza dengan kaum-kaum yang lain kerana mereka mendapat kedudukan yang lebih sempurna iaitu kaum India tinggal di kawasan estet dan kaum Cina tinggal di kawasan bandar. (Lehar, 1998)

RANCANGAN-RANCANGAN PEMBANGUNAN EKONOMI

Selepas mencapai kemerdekaan, kerajaan mula merancang dan melaksanakan usaha-usaha rancangan pembangunan negara untuk mengatasi berbagai masalah sosio-ekonomi dan politik, hasil peninggalan dasar-dasar pembangunan yang telah diamalkan oleh penjajah. Antara rancangan tersebut adalah seperti yang berikut. (Lehar, 1998)

DASAR EKONOMI BARU (DEB)

Dasar Ekonomi Baru (DEB) ialah satu dasar sosio ekonomi yang telah dirangka bagi mencapai perpaduan negara melalui dua matlamat iaitu membasmi kemiskinan tanpa mengira kaum dan menyusun semula masyarakat bagi mengurangkan dan seterusnya menghapuskan pengenalan kaum mengikut fungsi-fungsi ekonomi. DEB meliputi tempoh masa dua puluh tahun (1970-1990), ia dibentuk serentak dengan pelancaran Rancangan Malaysia Kedua dan berakhir dengan Rancangan Malaysia Kelima. (Lehar, 1998)

Pendekatan DEB berbeza dengan pendekatan rancangan-rancangan pembangunan sebelumnya. Dasar ini menekankan agihan dalam pertumbuhan. Ini bermakna pertumbuhan ekonomi adalah semakin penting agar pertambahan kekayaan negara dapat diagih-agihkan berlandaskan kaum, kawasan sama ada bandar atau luar bandar, dan wilayah. Pembahagian yang sedemikian memanglah wajar memandangkan wujudnya perbezaan yang sangat jauh dari segi pendapatan, pembangunan, penempatan, kemudahan sosial, dan taraf pendidikan. Dari segi pendapatan, pada tahun 1970 purata pendapatan isi rumah sebulan bagi penduduk Melayu hanya RM 172 berbanding dengan penduduk Cina RM 394 dan India RM 304. Pendapatan penduduk Melayu adalah lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan pendapatan purata keseluruhan. Pendapatan penduduk bandar pula adalah dua kali ganda lebih besar daripada pendapatan penduduk luar bandar. Situasi ini dapat dilihat menerusi jadual berikut.

Semenanjung Malaysia: Pendapatan Purata Isi Rumah Sebulan Pada Tahun 1970 (Mengikut harga tetap tahun 1970) Kaum/Kawasan | Pendapatan Purata(RM) | KaumMelayuCinaIndiaLain-lainSemua kaum | 172394304813264 | KawasanBandarLuar Bandar | 428200 |

Sumber: Penyelidikan Selepas Bancian Penduduk dan Perumahan 1970,RRJP 2 (1991-2000)

Dari segi pekerjaan pula, orang Melayu ramai yang terlibat dengan sektor pertama terutamanya sektor pertanian. Pada tahun 1970, terdapat 67.6 peratus orang Melayu bekerja dalam sektor pertama, 32.1 peratus dalam sektor kedua dan bakinya 42.6 peratus dalam sektor ketiga dibandingkan dengan orang Cina di mana hampir 60 peratus bekerja dalam sektor kedua yang pulangannya lebih tinggi dan lebih stabil dibandingkan dengan sektor pertama. Sungguhpun peratus orang Melayu yang bekerja dengan sektor ketiga tinggi iaitu 42.6 peratus tetapi sebahagian besar daripada mereka bekerja di jabatan kerajaan, sementara yang bekerja di sektor swasta adalah kakitangan peringkat bawahan. Hal ini dapat dirujuk berdasarkan jadual yang berikut. (Lehar, 1998)

Semenanjung Malaysia: Pekerjaan Mengikut Sektor dan Kaum pada tahun 1970 Sektor | Melayu | Cina | India | Lain-lain | Jumlah | Pertama(%) | 902.3(67.6) | 265.4(19.9) | 154.0(11.5) | 12.9(1.0) | 1 334.6(100.0) | Kedua(%) | 215.6(32.1) | 394.3(58.7) | 57.1(8.5) | 4.7(0.7) | 671.7(100.0) | Ketiga(%) | 359.7(42.6) | 383.9(45.5) | 90.3(10.7) | 10.1(1.2) | 844.0(100.0) | Sumber: Institut Tadbiran Awam Negara (1983)

Kedua-dua matlamat DEB melibatkan pembaharuan penghidupan kawasan luar bandar, perkembangan kegiatan di bandar-bandar yang seimbang dan mewujudkan masyarakat Melayu dan bumiputera lain dalam semua jenis dan peringkat kerajaan, supaya mereka boleh menyertai dengan sepenuhnya dalam semua aspek ekonomi. (Lehar, 1998)

Strategi Membasmi Kemiskinan

Beberapa program dijalankan bagi kedua-dua kawasan bandar dan luar bandar untuk mencapai matlamat membasmi kemiskinan. Di kawasan luar bandar, program-program yang dijalankan adalah tertumpu kepada penyediaan kemudahan-kemudahan asas serta pembangunan tanah seperti:

a) Menambahkan kemudahan asas seperti bekalan air, elektrik, pengairan, kesihatan, perumahan, pelajaran, latihan-latihan, pengangkutan, kemudahan kredit, pemasaran, dan subsidi pertanian. b) Melipatgandakan pembangunan dan pembukaan tanah supaya dapat diserap tenaga buruh yang berlebihan. c) Menambahkan daya pengeluaran dan pendapatan melalui penggunaan sains dan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian, penternakan, dan perikanan. d) Menambahkan tanaman dua kali setahun, tanaman luar musim dan tanaman kontan.

Di kawasan bandar pula program pembasmian kemiskinan melibatkan penyediaan kemudahan-kemudahan asas seperti pembinaan rumah kos rendah,kemudahan air dan elektrik, perkhidmatan kesihatan dan perubatan serta mewujudkan lebih banyak peluang pekerjaan. (Lehar, 1998)

Strategi Menyusun Semula Masyarakat

Tiga program utama telah dijalankan bagi mencapai matlamat menyusun semula masyarakat. Program tersebut meliputi:

i) Penyusunan semula guna tenaga ii) Pengagihan semula hak milik saham dalam sektor syarikat. iii) Pembentukan sebuah masyarakat perdagangan dan perindustrian dalam kalangan bumiputera (MPPB)

Strategi penyusunan semula guna tenaga meliputi guna tenaga ketiga-ketiga sektor (sektor pertama, sektor kedua, dan sektor ketiga). Peratus penglibatan bumiputera dalam sektor kedua dan sektor ketiga akan dipertingkatkan di samping memastikan kewujudan kaum bumiputera di semua peringkat dan kategori dalam sektor kedua dan sektor ketiga. (Lehar, 1998)

Strategi pengagihan semula hak milik modal saham dalam sektor syarikat adalah untuk menambahkan dengan lebih cepat lagi bahagian rakyat Malaysia dalam pemilikan modal produktif termasuk saham sektor syarikat. Kaum bumiputera akan diberi perhatian yang lebih kerana bahagian mereka yang kecil berbanding dengan bilangan mereka dalam jumlah penduduk. Kerajaan menumpukan perhatiannya kepada usaha menambahkan modal saham bumiputera dalam syarikat-syarikat berhad seperti yang dikelolakan oleh Amanah Saham Mara dan Unit Penyertaan Bumiputera di Kementeriaan Perdagangan dan Perindustrian. (Lehar, 1998)

Strategi mewujudkan MPPB adalah supaya kaum bumiputera akan memiliki dan menguruskan sekurang-kurangnya 30 peratus dari jumlah kegiatan perdagangan dan perindustrian dalam negara bagi semua lapangan dan peringkat kegiatan ekonomi. Dalam usaha ini, kerajaan telah menubuh dan memesatkan lagi peranan yang dimainkan oleh agensi-agensi yang boleh membantu orang Melayu dan bumiputera yang lain memasuki bidang perindustrian secara langsung atau tidak langsung seperti MARA, Bank Pembangunan, Syarikat Permodalan Kemajuan Perusahaan Malaysia Berhad (MIEL) dan Bank Bumiputera. (Lehar, 1998)

Kerajaan juga menggalakkan kaum Melayu memasuki bidang perniagaan dengan dimulakan secara kecil-kecilan. MARA membantu menyediakan modal dan khidmat nasihat. UDA membantu mendapatkan tapak dan ruang niaga yang sesuai di bandar-bandar, Bank Pembangunan, Bank Bumiputera dan institusi kewangan lain membantu dengan memberikan kemudahan kredit.

Pencapaian DEB

DEB berakhir pada tahun 1990,namun demikian matlamat membasmi kemiskinan dan penyusunan semula masyarakat masih belum dapat dicapai. DEB tidak mendiskriminasikan kaum, hanya sasarkan 30% pemilikan, bukannya 100%. Walau bagaimanapun, beberapa perubahan nyata yang positif dan membanggakan telah dapat dikesan. Situasi ini dapat dilihat berdasarkan beberapa statistik yang terdapat pada jadual-jadual berikut.

Penyertaan Golongan Profesional Bumiputera Meningkat
1990-2003

Profesion | 1990 | 2002 | | Bumiputera | Cina | India | Bumiputera | Cina | India | AkauntanArkitekDoktorDoktor GigiDoktor VeterinarJuruteraJuru UkurPeguam | 11.223.627.824.335.934.844.722.3 | 81.274.434.750.723.758.249.650.0 | 6.21.234.423.737.05.33.726.5 | 20.043.638.538.240.143.546.035.1 | 74.652.629.940.329.850.149.338.4 | 5.11.327.519.125.75.33.125.8 | JUMLAH | 29.0 | 55.9 | 13.2 | 37.2 | 50.1 | 11.2 |

Jurang Pendapatan Antara Kaum Berkurangan Nisbah ketaksamaan pendapatan isirumah | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 1999 | 2002 | Luar Bandar :BandarBumiputera :Cina Bumiputera : India | 1: 2.11: 2.31: 1.8 | 1: 1.81: 1.91: 13 | 1: 1.71: 1.71: 13 | 1: 1.81: 1.71: 1.4 | 1: 2.11: 1.81: 1.3 |

Pemilikan Ekuiti Bumiputera Sektor Korporat Meningkat Tetapi Masih Belum Mencapai Sasaran 30% | Matlamat | Pencapaian | | 1970 | 1990 | 1990 | 2002 | BumiputeraBukan Bumi. * Cina * India * Lain-lainAsingNomine | 2.432.363.32.0 | 30.040.030.0 | 19.346.845.51.00.325.48.5 | 18.743.240.91.50.828.99.2 | JUMLAH | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |

DASAR PEMBANGUNAN NASIONAL (DPN)

Dasar Pembangunan Nasional (DPN) meliputi tempoh 1991-2000. Tempoh 10 tahun ini merangkumi dua rancangan pembangunan lima tahun iaitu:

a. Rancangan Malaysia Keenam (1991-1995) b. Rancangan Malaysia Ketujuh (1996-2000)

DPN akan mengukuhkan lagi pencapaian DEB untuk mempercepatkan proses membasmi kemiskinan dan menyusun semula masyarakat dalam usaha memperbaiki lagi ketidakseimbangan sosial dan ekonomi. Perpaduan negara masih lagi menjadi matlamat utama.

DPN menetapkan langkah permulaan ke arah membolehkan mencapai taraf sebuah negara maju menjelang tahun 2020, bukan sahaja dari segi ekonomi tapi juga dari semua aspek. Adalah menjadi wawasan kerajaan bahawa menjelang tahun 2020, Malaysia menjadi sebuah negara yang bersatu-padu, mempunyai masyarakat yang berkeyakinan, menghayati nilai-nilai moral dan etika yang teguh, hidup dalam sebuah masyarakat yang demokratik,liberal dan bertimbang rasa, penyayang, saksama dan adil dari segi ekonomi, progresif dan makmur, dan memiliki sebuah ekonomi yang mampu bersaing, dinamik, teguh, berdaya tahan dan adil dari segi sosial. (Lehar, 1998)

Di samping mengekalkan strategi asas DEB, dimensi-dimensi baru DPN adalah:

a) Membasmi kemiskinan dalam kalangan golongan termiskin di samping mengurangkan kemiskinan relatif. b) Mewujudkan pembangunan pesat sebuah Masyarakat Perdagangan dan Perindustrian Bumiputera yang aktif (MPPB) yang aktif. c) Meningkatkan penglibatan sektor swasta. d) Menumpukan kepada pembangunan sumber manusia. e) Penekanan kepada penyelidikan dan pembangunan.

Membantu Golongan Termiskin dan Membasmi Kemiskinan Relatif

Selepas 20 tahun DEB, peratus kemiskinan di kedua-dua kawasan bandar dan luar bandar telah banyak dapat dikurangkan. Dalam keadaan ekonomi yang sedang pesat membangun dan taraf hidup penduduk yang semakin meningkat, kerajaan berpendapat lebih banyak peluang-peluang ekonomi boleh direbut oleh sebahagian besar rakyat Malaysia. Oleh itu, keutamaan diberikan ke atas usaha membasmi kemiskinan dalam kalangan golongan termiskin iaitu mereka yang berpendapatan setengah daripada pendapatan garis kemiskinan. Pembasmian kemiskinan dalam kalangan golongan termiskin akan sendirinya dapat menghapuskan kemiskinan mutlak. Golongan termiskin ini terdiri daripada mereka yang ketinggalan dalam proses pembangunan negara, sama ada disebabkan terlalu miskin, terlalu tua atau tinggal di kawasan yang terpencil sehingga sukar mendapatkan faedah daripada program-program pembangunan. (Lehar, 1998)

Pada masa yang sama, kemiskinan relatif pula semakin ketara. Ia adalah suatu keadaan di mana terdapat perbezaan pendapatan yang sangat jauh antara kumpulan-kumpulan masyarakat. Ia mengakibatkan agihan pendapatan yang tidak begitu baik dan boleh menimbulkan perasaan kecewa walaupun secara mutlak kehidupan mereka semakin bertambah baik. Golongan minority seperti orang asli dan bumiputera di Sabah dan Sarawak serta India juga turut diberi pertimbangan. (Lehar, 1998)

Mewujudkan Masyarakat Perdagangan dan Perindustrian Bumiputera (MPPB)

Strategi ini adalah lanjutan daripada strategi DEB. Strategi ini penting untuk meningkatkan bilangan bumiputera yang berdaya maju dalam semua kategori dan semua operasi syarikat. (Lehar, 1998)

Meningkatkan Penglibatan Swasta

Peranan dan penglibatan sektor awam dan sektor swasta dianggap semakin penting dalam membangunkan ekonomi negara, terutama ke arah menjadikan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara perindustrian. Tanggungjawab ini mesti dikongsi bersama oleh sektor awam dan sektor swasta. Oleh itu, kerajaan terus member insentif-insentif dan mewujudkan ruang-ruang supaya sektor swasta boleh terus berkembang dan menyumbang kepada pembangunan negara. Adalah diharapkan pada masa akan datang, sektor swasta akan menerajui pembangunan negara. Sektor awam pula akan meneruskan hal-hal pentadbiran, perundangan, dan keselamatan negara. (Lehar, 1998)

Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

Pembangunan sumber manusia adalah asas yang penting untuk mencapai pertumbuhan ekonomi dan agihan kekayaan yang saksama. Adalah penting kekayaan dan keupayaan bumiputera dalam mengurus, mengendali dan memiliki perniagaan dapat ditingkatkan dari semasa ke semasa. Ekonomi yang semakin pesat membangun dan tenaga buruh yang semakin sukar diperolehi memerlukan tenaga buruh yang ada untuk meningkatkan kecekapan dan produktiviti agar cita-cita untuk menjadi sebuah negara perindustrian tercapai. (Lehar, 1998)

Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan

Usaha-usaha penyelidikan dan pembangunan adalah penting supaya negara dapat mencapai taraf negara maju menjelang tahun 2020. Dengan adanya penyelidikan dan pembangunan, daya saing di pasaran antarabangsa dapat dipertingkatkan di samping dapat meningkatkan produktiviti keluaran dan perkhidmatan. Sektor swasta digalakkan mewujudkan kerjasama dengan universiti-universiti dan institusi penyelidikan tempatan. Kerajaan akan menyediakan insentif fiscal dan kewangan di samping menyediakan kemudahan infrastruktur.

Seperti DEB, DPN meneruskan usaha mengurangkan ketidakseimbangan ekonomi bukan sahaja dikalangan kaum etnik tetapi juga antara golongan kaya dan miskin serta antara wilayah ketidakseimbangan ekonomi akan dapat dikurangkan berasaskan prinsip pembangunan seimbang dan pengagihan saksama untuk mencapai keadilan sosial dan memperkukuhkan perpaduan negara. (Lehar, 1998)

WAWASAN 2020

Terdapat sembilan cabaran untuk merealisasikan Wawasan 2020 iaitu untuk menjadikan Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara maju sepenuhnya. Sembilan cabaran tersebut adalah:

a) Mewujudkan bangsa Malaysia bersatu yang mempunyai matlamat yang dikongsi bersama. b) Mewujudkan masyarakat yang berjiwa bebas, tenteram dan maju dengan keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri, bangga dengan apa yang ada dan yang dicapai serta gagah menghadapi pelbagai masalah. c) Mewujudkan dan membangunkan masyarakat demokratik yang matang, mengamalkan satu bentuk persefahaman matang, demokrasi Malaysia berasaskan masyarakat yang boleh menjadi contoh kepada banyak negara membangun. d) Mewujudkan masyarakat yang sepenuhnya bermoral dan beretika. e) Mewujudkan masyarakat liberal dan bertolak ansur. Rakyat pelbagai kaum bebas mengamalkan idea, kebudayaan dan kepercayaan agama masing-masing dan pada masa yang sama, meletakkan kesetiaan mereka kepada satu Negara. f) Mewujudkan masyarakat saintifik dan progresif, mempunyai daya perubahan tinggi dan memandang ke depan, yang bukan sahaja menjadi pengguna teknologi tetapi juga penyumbang kepada tamadun saintifik dan teknologi masa depan. g) Mewujudkan masyarakat penyayang dan budaya menyayangi, iaitu system sosial yang mengutamakan kepentingan masyarakat, kebajikan insan tidak akan berkisar kepada negara atau orang perseorangan, tapi sekeliling sistem keluarga yang kukuh. h) Mewujudkan masyarakat yang adil dalam bidang ekonomi. i) Mewujudkan masyarakat makmur yang mempunyai ekonomi bersaing, dinamik, giat, dan kental. (Lehar, 1998)

Ringkasan dasar-dasar pembangunan negara serta pendekatannya dapat dilihat berdasarkan jadual di bawah.

Dasar-dasar Pembangunan Negara serta Pendekatannya Dasar-dasar | Pendekatan pembangunan | Tempoh | Sebelum DEB (3 rancanganPembangunan 5 tahun)DEB (4 rancangan pembangunan 5 tahun)DPN (2 rancangan pembangunan 5 tahun)Wawasan 2020 (30 tahun) | Laisse faireAktiviti eksportPembangunan ekonomi dan luar bandarAgihan dalam pertumbuhanPertumbuhan seimbangPembangunan secara menyeluruh | 1956-19701971-19901991-20001991-2020 |

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...marketing continued to improve sales. McDonalds is one of the top U.S fast-food joints. It has been around since 1937. Patrick McDonald opened “The airdrome” restaurant on route 66 near the airport in California. In 1940 his two sons, Maurice and Richard (“Mac” and “Dick”), Moved the entire building and later renamed it McDonalds. They had sold hamburgers for ten cents and then all you can drink orange juice for five cents. The McDonalds Corporation made many new stops to build. In the early 1960s McDonalds really began to take off. The growth in U.S automobile use that came with suburbanization contributed heavily to their success. Later Kroc bought the McDonalds brothers, aiming to make it the number one fast-food chain in the country. McDonald’s role was to feed the hungry people that came in. They a lot of people in the 60’s because the demand for it became greater. Around 1968 McDonald restaurants reached all 50 states. It was said that a new McDonalds opened every five hours somewhere in the world. The public face of McDonalds was created in 1963 with the introduction of a clown we all know as Ronald McDonald. The “M” symbol we all see at every McDonald is the most enduring logo, lasting longer than the tall arches that had once dominated the rooftops of earlier restaurants. Other symbols that we remember are the Big Mac, the egg McMuffin, Happy Meals, and the Chicken McNuggets. It is normal for us to walk in any McDonalds and say automatically what we want. By emphasizing...

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The Mcdonald Observatory

...February 19, 2012 The McDonald Observatory The McDonald Observatory is located on Mount Locke in the Davis Mountains of West Texas. This observatory was constructed in the 1930s. The initial funding for construction came from Texan banker, William Johnson McDonald, who left provisions in his will that $800,000 be donated to the University of Texas at Austin in order to construct an astronomical observatory. This structure which is open to the public sees more than 60,000 visitors each year. Likewise, the observatory has been the center of attraction for many astronomers, and its numerous resources have also contributed to the discovery and continuous research of many astronomic phenomena. The McDonald Observatory is presently the property of the University of Texas at Austin and currently receives most of its funding from them. It operates four research telescopes. One of the most pronounced features attached to the observatory is Otto Struve Telescope. When this telescope was dedicated in 1939 it was then the second biggest telescope in the world. Two other telescope note mentioning are the Harlan J. Smith Telescope (named after once director of the observatory, Harlan J. Smith), and the Hobby-Eberly Telescope (known to be the fifth largest telescope in the world). The Hobby-Eberly is arguably the observatory’s most prized possession. This powerful telescope specializes in spectroscopy which enables astronomers to get a glimpse at stars, planets, and galaxies located...

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Case Study: The Ronald Mcdonald House Charities

...The Ronald McDonald House Charities history starts in 1974 when a Philadelphia Eagles player’s daughter became sick with leukemia. Fred Hill and his wife had no place to sleep other than waiting rooms and hospital benches during their daughter’s three years of hospitalization. The Hills and other families traveled many miles for treatment and were not able to pay for hotel rooms. The Eagles’ manager and Fred’s teammates raised funds to donate to the pediatric oncology unit to give short term housing for the families with sick children at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.rmhccoastalempire.org/-mcdonald-house-charities-of-the-coastal-empire-inc. The Eagles manager, Jim Murray, requested help from the...

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5. Based on Your Response to Question 4 Above, Recommend Both a Short-Range and Long-Range Plan for Mcdonald’s to Implement.

.... How should McDonald's respond when ads promoting healthy lifestyles featuring Ronald McDonald are equated with Joe camel and cigarette ads? Should McDonalds's eliminate Ronald McDonald in its ads? Eliminating Ronald McDonald, who is the brand mascot, is not the solution. Rather many people connect with Ronald McDonald emotionally. According to a survey, Ronald is among top 25 mascots of all times. (Top survey, 2007) Ronald McDonalds can visit to schools for educating students about the importance of health and a healthy lifestyle. This will have the positive image of the mascot and further, Ronald McDonald could involve in charities where the mascot can be seen in giving charities to the unfortunate children. All the above would help in gaining the image of Ronald McDonalds back. McDonald should react to this issue in a calm and positive way as still many kids and parents are in love with the Ronald and would like to see their favorite whenever they visit to the outlet. By making people know that it is the perception which people will need to change. By imbibing healthier lifestyle is the solution, not protesting the mascot. 2. Discuss the merits of the law proposed by France that would require fast-food companies either to add a health message to commercials or to pay 1.5 % tax on their ad budget. Propose a strategy for McDonald's to pay the tax or add health message and defend your recommendation. The law would make the advertisers to add a health message in their...

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Clowns

...2008, that fear drastically evolved into a trauma; Once I watched the movie called, ‘IT’, by Stephen King. From that day forward I found myself screaming and crying at the top of my lungs every time I seen a clown. Imagining that they were evil killers just like the intimidating clown of the movie. The trauma was so intense that when there was a fund raiser event held at my elementary school , Browning Pearce , the clown Ronald McDonald was there to meet and greet every child , including me, and once it was my turn to actually see him I fainted and collapsed onto the floor . As I came to my senses, my mother, Brenda forced me to watch the movie, ‘IT', including a bunch of other clown cartoons. I had to watch them for a whole week nonstop, even before I did my homework or went to church. Watching almost 168 hours of clowns on television; I finally realized that my horror of clowns had vanished into thin air. The next day I told my mother that the anxiety was gone, so she told me to get in the car and she drove us to a local McDonalds where Ronald McDonald was at. She had me meet him again, but, this time I didn't faint; I actually thought he was a funny cool clown. In conclusion, I became indomitable of clowns and with the help of my mother disciplining me to face my trepidation of them; the word FEAR had ceased to exist anymore within me. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ...

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...2008, that fear drastically evolved into a trauma; Once I watched the movie called, ‘IT’, by Stephen King. From that day forward I found myself screaming and crying at the top of my lungs every time I seen a clown. Imagining that they were evil killers just like the intimidating clown of the movie. The trauma was so intense that when there was a fund raiser event held at my elementary school , Browning Pearce , the clown Ronald McDonald was there to meet and greet every child , including me, and once it was my turn to actually see him I fainted and collapsed onto the floor . As I came to my senses, my mother, Brenda forced me to watch the movie, ‘IT', including a bunch of other clown cartoons. I had to watch them for a whole week nonstop, even before I did my homework or went to church. Watching almost 168 hours of clowns on television; I finally realized that my horror of clowns had vanished into thin air. The next day I told my mother that the anxiety was gone, so she told me to get in the car and she drove us to a local McDonalds where Ronald McDonald was at. She had me meet him again, but, this time I didn't faint; I actually thought he was a funny cool clown. In conclusion, I became indomitable of clowns and with the help of my mother disciplining me to face my trepidation of them; the word FEAR had ceased to exist anymore within me. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ...

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Mcdonalds

...McDonald’s (in 2013): How to Win Again? McDonald is (in 2013): How to Win Again? The fast food industry seems to be a relatively easy market to compete in with the demand of easy, fast food accommodations. However, the largest of the industry, McDonalds, has experienced some very impactful setbacks. As competition, rises in the quick-service industry McDonalds has had to make several adjustments to stay on the leading competitive edge. As society becomes more aware of health issues and economic opportunities, the restaurant industry has been severely impacted which, has forced menu adjustments with better food at competitive prices. Below we will address how McDonalds strategy through analysis, formulation, and implementation. Analysis: Focus on External and/or Internal Environments Maintaining a competitive advantage is the most important factor for a business to be successful. Although McDonalds has been in business since 1940 and has formulated the market for the fast food industry, it has come under heavy pressure of competitors. At first, McDonalds focused on burgers, drinks, and fires. However, new entries into the quick-service industry have affected them with more expanded and different menus. This has forced McDonalds to restructure their entire business strategy over time to stay on top of customer demands placing focus on the PESTEL model. External Environments There are several trends that affect McDonald’s ability to sustain a competitive...

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Mcdonalds

...McDonalds: Operating in the Best Interests of Society or its own Profits? Marc Nettekoven Florida Atlantic University Professor Brenda Richey MAN 6937 December 7, 2011 Table of Contents Introduction 3 Company Changes 3 Competition 7 Consumer Protection & Regulation 8 Corporate Social Responsibility 10 Conclusion 11 Appendix 12 References 13 McDonalds: Operating in the Best Interests of Society or its own Profits? Today, there are numerous other fast food chains and similar alternatives for consumers to choose from beyond the option of McDonalds. Due to increasing levels of competition, rising concerns of food quality and increasing concern of obesity; operating in today’s globalized fast food society can deem to be a difficult task. McDonalds needs to broaden its narrow-minded focus on generating profits (expanding its location base) and adding more locations. The company needs to increase market share while building a good reputation by operating in, and contributing to, the best interest of society. When referring to society, it includes all stakeholders in the company, ranging from customers to suppliers. To realign its strategy and focus on ethicality and its responsibility as a corporation, McDonalds must involve all levels within the company, from top management to suppliers to franchise employees. Although operating in such a manner would require large levels of capital, the benefits to society as a whole would inevitably bring company...

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Mcdonalds

...implementation. * Defining issues or problems by taking account the purpose of study. * Relevant background information. * What information is needed? * How the information will be used in decision making. Issues and problems at McDonalds 5 May 2015 in CNBC News McDonalds can’t shake its image, McDonald has a problem of fast food (all that’s good is bad) Alan Siegel CEO of brands says the fast food behemoth has been reactive instead of proactive Mc Donald admits that tackling issues it faces is not moving faster turnaround time. McDonald changed Big Mac to McLean. 2. Statement of research objections * Creating a research plan in solving issues and problems identified * Framework or blueprint for conducting market research project * Details and procedures necessary for obtaining the required information * Purpose to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest * Answer to possible questions to the research * Provide needed information for decision making As mentioned above McDonald is tackling the issues. 3. Designing the research project Planning research design Defining problems and deciding the objectives Framework or blueprint for coding the marketing research project McDonald has a web link www.mcdonald .com (thick) 4. Collecting information or data * Collect Information to solve issues and problems * Involves canvassing, interviews, prospecting, networking, mail intercept...

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Mcdonalds

...The Mcdonald Corporation is the world is the world largest and leading chain of hamburger fast food restaurants which serves round about 68 million customers in 119 countries with 35000 outlets in a day.McDonalds Corporation has been growing and spreading internationally from last couple of decades. It was started as barbecue restaurant in 1940 and its quarter is based in United States of America.In the starting its business as a hamburger by using production principles. Though McDonald seems convenient, economical and clean but it has a lot of negative aspects like low wages and salaries to its employees, which impact negatively the company’s culture, personality, and McDonald’s chain but have managed as a positive The McDonald’s restaurant in UAE are 100% operated and owned by local franchises, affiliates. All the decision and ideas are being taken locally and revenues is also invested in the local economy. As per Emirates Fast Food Corporation, The owner and runner of McDonalds restaurant in UAE is feeling much proud to serve United Arab Emirates public with its favorite food since 1994. With the passage of time we have become the part of region after managing to grow as per local customs. Customer are also like McDonalds and they are served with Safe, High Quality product to every customers in UAE either by delivery or walk in restaurants. McDonald operationsare also run as sales company operated restaurants. The McDonalds is having a revenue of $27.5 billion and profits...

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Mcdonalds

...McDonalds has grown to become a global franchise icon around the world and is synonymous with American culture. Recent years have shown a different strategy that is being used and could be affecting bottom-line profits. With McDonalds growing globally year after year, concerns have grown that they were straying away from the American fast food while adapting to the local culture. For example, In Europe, McDonalds is competing with the coffee places such as Starbucks to gain an edge on the market. Also, McDonalds has changed their menus according to the culture to make a more palatable menu. The strategy to grow and expand overseas has changed considerably over the years due to internal and external factors. Internally, McDonalds had to have diversity set in place to have different views on strategy. McDonalds had to realize that having diversity as an asset greatly enhances the company’s profitability. Diversity is a direct reflection of a company’s interpersonal relationships. Externally, McDonalds had to have the community involved to grow globally. By having the community involved helps strengthen the brand name and focuses on the key cores that was put in place by Ray Kroc. Utilizing local suppliers for products strengthens the relationship between a company and a community as well. Menus are tailored according to the customs and culture and have to very conscious on the feedback an item might get if done incorrectly. For example, India’s menu is a vegetarian menu and encompasses...

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Mcdonalds

...Abstract: Modern organizations struggle with staffing challenges stemming from increased knowledge work, labor shortages, competition for applicants, and workforce diversity. Yet, despite such critical needs for effective staffing practice, staffing research continues to be neglected or misunderstood by many organizational decision makers. Solving these challenges requires staffing scholars to expand their focus from individual-level recruitment and selection research to multilevel research demonstrating the business unit/organizationallevel impact of staffing. Toward this end, this review provides a selective and critical analysis of staffing best practices covering literature from roughly 2000 to the present. Several research-practice gaps are also identified. Reference: Hussain folder staffing the 2nd page. Table of Contents Abstract: 1 1. Company Profile: 1 2. McDonald’s Organizational Behaviour 1 2.1 Diversity 1 2.2 Equal Opportunity 1 2.3 Cultural Differences 2 3 Human Resource Management 2 4. Staffing 4 4.1 Implications of Staffing 4 4.2 Staffing Models 5 4.2.1 Staffing Quantity 5 4.2.2 Staffing Quality 6 4.2.3 Staffing System Components 6 4.2.4 Staffing Organizations 7 4.3 Organizational Effectiveness 7 5. Recruitment at McDonald’s: 8 5.1 Recruiting Suitable Applicants 9 5.2 Recruitment and Selection Process 9 Step 1: Planning 10 Step 2: Selection Process 11 Step 3: Interview 11 Step 4: Reference Check 12 ...

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Mcdonalds

...great consequences on where a company’s future is leading. As does, the new rapid age of technology and information resources. It is always a constant race to the top and once you find yourself there, how do you maintain your position? A perfect example of this is the large fast food chain, McDonalds. In 1940, brothers Dick and Mac McDonald opened their first McDonalds restaurant in San Bernadino, California. In 1955, with the help of a franchising agent named Ray Kroc, they opened their second restaurant in Des Plaines, Illinois. Mr. Kroc purchased McDonalds in 1961 from the McDonalds brothers for $2.7 million. It was like wildfire from there, expanding to over 700 restaurants by 1965. In that same year, in celebration of their tenth anniversary, Mr. Kroc decided to offer stock to the public for $22.50 per share. Had someone purchased 100 shares in 1965 for $2,250, it would be worth over $7.3 million after it’s twelve stock splits. What has made made McDonald’s so successful? Ray Kroc’s mission statement for McDonalds was a simple one. He wanted the restaurant to be his customers favorite place and way to eat. Their mission statement hasn’t changed much over the years. “McDonalds vision is to be the world’s best quick service restaurant experience. Being the best means providing outstanding quality, service, cleanliness, and value so that we make every customer in every restaurant smile.” They exercise a global strategy called the “Plan to Win” which focuses on customers...

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Mcdonalds

...McDonalds Introduction: The history of the McDonalds is old as before the Second World War. The first McDonalds restaurant is made by Patrick McDonalds on Huntington drive near Monrovia airport in California in 1937. Later on his two sons Maurice and Richard known as “Mac and Dick” shifts the restaurant towards the San Bernardino, California in 1940. The initial product this restaurant is only the hamburger, but later on the demand of the product increases and McDonalds for meeting the increase in demand offer different types of the fast food products like, Fried Chicken, Coffee and etc. This increase In the menu and the successive corporate strategy adopts by McDonalds makes it a leader of the market in USA “in 2011 with the revenues crossing $5.5 billion to $27 billion”. The key competitors of McDonalds are KFC and subways. The success of McDonalds is seen through the effect that more than 64 million customers visit its 33000 restaurants daily around the globe. In 2011, this company is at the 1st position on the Dow jones stock index providing 35% return on its stock. In 2012, the position of this company on the fortune 500 list will be 107, having revenues of $27006 million with the increase of 12.2% from year 2010 (Anonymous, 2012). Why McDonalds Differ from other: The corporate strategic management of any organization contributes towards achievement of competitive advantage. In McDonalds, the success is the base of its strategic management. Their unique and successive...

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Mcdonald

...assignment talks about the strategic management in context to McDonalds. Strategic management is one of the critical issues to be studied by a company in order to understand the causes and solution of the problems and hurdles in the way of the success of the business and its market growth. As we all know that it's a world of globalization and competition and therefore every company has to make certain plans and strategies in order to tackle the problems they face due to the competition in the local and global markets. Every company has to make effective strategies and plans in order to tackle the internal and the external problems faced by the company. Internal problems can be linked with any internal department or process such as HR or Pay role or machinery etc and the external challenges can be competition, changing technologies etc. Globalization on one hand gives benefits to the company to explore new markets and increase its customers in order to make more profits but it also poses different problems and challenges which the company has to tackle to continue its success in the new markets. Company has to design proper strategic plan to point out and tackle the problems curbing the success of the business. Either it's a local or a global market company always needs an efficient strategy to tackle the issues curbing its success in the market. This assignment will discuss the various strategic issues of concern for the McDonalds and plans it has designed to tackle these problems. We...

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