Free Essay

Nazism vs Fascism

In: Social Issues

Submitted By orlando1
Words 2048
Pages 9
Compare and contrast Nazi and Italian Fascist views on race and national identity

Despite both pertaining to the political ideology of fascism and sharing many similar characteristics, the regimes of Nazi Germany and Italy under Mussolini can be seen to differ slightly. One aspect where this becomes apparent is views on race; the differences in attitudes and policy with regards to race for both examples must be discussed as it provides a key distinction between Nazism and Italy’s own brand of Facismo. With regards to national identity, it is possible to concede that both regimes share similar characteristics; however they attempt to achieve their goals of national identity in fundamentally different ways. The central thesis of this paper will contend that Italian Fascism’s views on race contradict that of the Nazi’s, and that while similar aspects and views of national identity are held, there are differing means of establishing national identity. Moreover, this paper will illustrate that Nazism and Italian Fascism are in fact unique phenomena. Examples and evaluative comment will be provided in order to provide a clear comparison and distinction.
Firstly, comparison between Italian and Nazi views on race must be discussed at they provide notable differentiation. Racial theory proved to be of paramount importance to 19th century German science and academics which strongly influenced Nazi ideology, ‘Volkish theorists found a theory of race in the writings of Kant which was based primarily on geographic factors and held that geographically determined racial characteristics were accompanied by an “inner life force”, this Kantian tenet was applied in correlating landscape and the Volk soul’ (Mosse 1981:89). Volkish theory such as this thereby set the scene for Social Darwinism as values of superiority and inferiority became established and ultimately the creation of an Aryan criterion as ‘various techniques were applied in order to relate external characteristics to internal qualities in a more systematic way’ (Mosse 1981:89). Moreover, De Gobineau’s theory stated races would rise to power if they were in their purest form, however must not be ‘contaminated’, thus emphasising the need for a pure race. This Volkish philosophy and discourse combined with Social Darwinism and influence from the likes of H.S Chamberlain provided huge inspiration for the identification of a Jewish enemy, an enemy which the Third Reich would attempt to destroy during the Holocaust. The creation of the Herrenvolk or ‘master race’ and Untermenschen or ‘underclass’ illustrated Nazi obsession with the socially constructed concept of race and this thereby paved way for the implementation of brutal racial policy. ‘The basic ideology of National Socialism grounded in the racist (Volkisch) laws of life and custom has general validity for the interpretation and assessment of existing laws and agreements. and it defines the content of the concepts of 'good faith' and of 'good morals' (Ruthers 1973:219) therefore illustrating the way in which race played such as huge part in the cultivation of German identity.
‘In the theory of the folk-Reich (volkisches Reich), people and state are conceived as an inseparable unity. The people is the prerequisite for the entire political order; the state does not form the people but the people moulds the state out of itself as the form in which it achieves historical permanence’ (Huber 1939:155). In this excerpt from his work Constitutional Law of the Greater German Reich, Huber advocates the desire for national unity; the Volk would form part of the union of the party and the Fuhrer. It was the combinations of these concepts by which the Nazi’s believed the means to cultivate national consciousness and reinforce their concept of national identity. This in turn becomes racialised as those deemed not Volk are immediately excluded from the political union. Similarly, Beck’s commentary on race provides evidence for the awakening of national consciousness through pre-determined biology; ‘Race and people belong together. National Socialism has restored the concept of the people from its modern shallowness and sees in the people something different from and appreciably greater than a chance social community of men, a grouping of men who have the same external interests. By people we understand an entire living body which is racially uniform and which is held together by common history, common fate, a common mission, and common tasks, through such an interpretation the people takes on significance’ (Beck 1936:20). National Socialist rhetoric as illustrated by Huber and Beck clearly illustrate the obsession Nazism had with race, race was therefore not only important, but it provided the key to instilling senses of national identity and state consciousness.
In comparison, it is possible to concede that Fascism in Italy was significantly less concerned with race however it would be wrong to negate their views altogether. Despite not sharing the same degree of extremist racial views as the Germans, it can be argued that all fascism is inherently racist. Roger Griffin stipulates that in order to create a strong state and protect the national community from anarchic forces as ‘the attempts to create a uniqueness and common destiny of this community means that fascism is essentially racist, just as all forms of chauvinism, imperialism and colonialism are whether military, economic or cultural’ (Griffin 1991:48). It is of course important to remember Italy did in fact pass racial laws in 1938 as to be discussed. Advertised through the Manifesto of Race, stringent racial laws were passed in September of 1938 significantly infringing the civil rights of the Jewish community as well as minority groups. The manifesto declared the Aryan race to be superior, thus providing a direct parallel to the views of Nazi Germany. It is however very much possible to argue that the implementation of Mussolini’s racial policy was an act of appeasement to Hitler, therefore not providing a true reflection of Italian racial views. De Donno (2006:400) is able to contend that ‘Undoubtedly, the Italo-German alliance played a central role in the fascist racist turn’. Evidence to suggest that prior to 1938 Mussolini’s views were dissimilar to that of the Germans as he provided significant criticism to the idea of a pure Germanic race (De Donno 2006:396) and stressed how the fascists’ approach to the ‘political problem of race’ revealed a ‘balanced Mediterranean realism’ as opposed to ‘Nordic mysticism’ (Pende 1933:227). The inconsistencies of Italian racial policy is further criticised by Steinberg who concedes that they were ‘Nuremberg Laws but Italian-style, shot through with inconsistences’ (Steinberg 2002:220), it therefore cannot be said that articles and policy such as the Manifesto of Race were wholly endorsed.
Now let us consider the how closely related Italy and Germany’s views on national identity were. The palingenetic myth combined with populist ultra-nationalism characterises both Nazism and Italian fascism. The idea of a re-birth or palingenetic myth, Griffin argues, can be seen to ‘denote the visionary of a revolutionary new order which supplies the affective power of an ideology’ (Griffin 1991:35). Combining this palingenetic myth with populist ultra-nationalism, we see the creation of a ‘fascist minimum’ meaning an ideological pre-requisite (Griffin 1992:37). It is however, the means to achieve the new order where Nazism and fascism differ, despite both Nazism and Fascism displaying ultranationalistic tendency, the basis for the notions of national identity between the two differ greatly. It is possible to concede that Nazism is predominantly ethnocentric in its outlook; this idea is further developed by the concept of cultural relativity. It can be argued that Nazism attempts to achieve is national goals of unification and rebirth through objective factors such as race and genetics; this is personified by the Volksgemeinschaft and obsessions with racial ‘purity’, any social group not adhering to the Nazi ethnocentric ideal were immediately excluded and persecuted. Fascism on the other hand endorsed subjective factors to create the nation’s re-birth; culture conscious feelings provided the means for being ‘Italian’ rather than obsessions with racial biology. The Italians evoked memory of their rich and glorious Roman history; Italian Fascism saw the need for a ‘return to Roman values’ (Edwards 1999:207), these values in turn provided contradiction to traditional ideological forms such as liberalism, which they viewed to be ‘chaotic in comparison’ (Edwards 1999:207) thus establishing Fascism as very much an anti-ideology. Fascist obsession with imperial Rome’s history illustrates the subjective quality of Italy’s notions of national identity; Davies and Lynch (2002:121) emphasise ‘fascist movements have a noticeable tendency to glorify the past; in particular, a ‘Golden Age’ in the history of their nation or civilization’, thus illustrating that a history and myth is hugely responsible for the rise of ultra-nationalism in Italy. National chauvinism provided a key component of both Nazism and Italian Fascism; both regimes exercised a distinct sense of national superiority. This national chauvinism manifests itself in expansionist policies; the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and the Italian invasion of Abyssinia both illustrated the need for an expansion of empire. Aristotle Kallis explains that militaristic expansionism was synonymous of both Nazi and Italian foreign policy; ‘In legitimising the notions of spatial expansion and historic irredentism, the fascist regimes introduced territorial expansion as a central element of their worldview’ (Kallis 2000:104). We understand the expansionist vision shared between Italy and Germany to be atypical of fascism due to the underpinning principle that weaker nations are to be conquered by superior ones therefore demonstrating a strong vein of national chauvinism. Kallis does however concur that Mussolini’s dealings with other ultranationalist groups within Europe ‘did not reflect any wider scheme for a new fascist order in Europe; they were rather exercises in political activism which originated from the traditional Italian great power ambitions’ (Kallis 2000:104). Whilst it can be said both nations exercised expansionist policy; it must be said that Germany’s goals were significantly larger.
It is possible to conclude that it would be wrong to characterise Nazism and Italian fascism as fundamentally different with regards to race and national identity. Fascism is inconsistent and unsystematic therefore meaning we cannot confine each example to certain requisites. It is very much possible to describe generic fascism as a revolutionary ideology therefore it is not surprising that each examples characteristics will vary Every ultranationalist movement is different as it reflects the particular circumstances of the nation, and that is why the differing views on race and some notions for the basis of national identity for Germany and Italy occur; this idea is echoed by Sternhell who contends ‘Fascism in power was something to which fascist parties made remarkably different contributions, depending on the country concerned’ (Sternhell 1976:318). Both Italian fascism and Nazism are unique phenomena yet share ‘a political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism’ (Griffin 1993:26). It should therefore be of no real surprise that there are certain discrepancies with regards to issues such as race as ultimately there is a common ultra-nationalistic goal between the two; that of rebirth and national strength meaning the similarities are more fundamental than the differences.

Beck, F (1936) Die Erzieheng im dritten Reich p20
Davies, D and Lynch, L (2002). Fascism and the Far Right. 2nd ed. London. Routledge p121
De Donno. (2006). La Razza Ario-Mediterranea: Ideas of Race in Colonial and Fascist Italy. Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies . 8 (3), 396-411.
Edwards, C (1999). Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture, 1789-1945. Cambridge, England, UK;. p. 223
Griffin, R (1991). The Nature of Fascism. London: Psychology Press. p37.
Huber, R (1939) Verfassungsrecht des gross-deutschen Reiches (Constitutional Law of the Greater German Reich) p. 155
Kallis, A (2000). Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945. London: Routledge. 104.
Mosse, G L (1981). The crisis of German ideology : intellectual origins of the Third Reich . New York: H Fertig. p89
Pende, Nicola. (1933). Bonifica umana e razionale e biologia politica, Bologna: Cappelli p227
Ruthers, B (1973) Die unbegrenzte Auslegung. Zum Wandel der Privatrechtsordnung in Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt,), p. 219.
Steinberg, J (2002). All or Nothing: The Axis and the Holocaust 1941-43. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. 220.
Sternhell, Z and Lacquer, W (Eds.) (1976). Fascism, a Reader's Guide: Analyses, Interpretations, Bibliography. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Univeristy of California Press. p318.

Similar Documents

Free Essay

Italian Fascism vs. German Nazism

...Italian Fascism vs. German Nazism By Christina Dixon HIS306: Twentieth-Century Europe (BPI1434A) Instructor: Max Fassnacht May 4, 2015 Fascism and Nazism came during a time when there was an economic crisis that was sweeping through Europe. Fascism and Nazism was two familiar totalitarian regimes that was able to arise from Germany and Italy. In Germany, the National socialist party was conducted by Adolf Hitler, while Benito Mussolini conducted the fascist party in Italy. Italy and Germany’s future was based on the education in the schools, since education played an important role between these two nations. The people’s image of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler as two leaders was profoundly the important factors to their popularity. The most essential tool that was allowed in both countries and played a very important role in both political parties was propaganda, which gave both parties the ability to influence the perspectives of the people to their partiality. Italy and Germany are two natural allies, but however they are both different from each other and can be connected in many salutations. “Largo ai Giovani”, Italian for "make way for the young" (Clayton, 2009) was just one of the mottos that was used by Benito Mussolini’s regime. Mussolini’s saying highlights one of the most important aspects during the Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany’s education system. The education system in both countries was not just used for learning but also was the...

Words: 1295 - Pages: 6

Free Essay

Concepts and Theories in Politics

...Concepts and Theories in Politics Welcome to Introduction to Politics! This lecture will supplement what you will hear in class. I’m going to discuss some important methodological and substantive issues having to do with political science, including the role of concepts and theories, human nature and politics, and ideologies. If you need more background, I suggest taking a look at Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision; C.B. Macpherson, The Real World of Democracy; or Robert Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory.   To begin with, in some ways it is a misnomer to speak of political “science.” One crucial difference between political science and the natural sciences is that in the latter there is normally only one dominant paradigm at a time, while in the former there are what might be called competing paradigms. As T.S. Kuhn establishes in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, there was a paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic to the Copernican universe; in other words, from the idea that the Earth is the center of the universe we move to the idea that the Earth in fact goes around the sun, a radical conception when it was first put forward in 16th-century Europe but one that is now universally accepted. In the social sciences, however, there is no overriding consensus on how to analyze reality (or even on what counts as reality). In political science, for example, three major views may be distinguished on power and authority in the United States: (a) the pluralist model, in which...

Words: 1536 - Pages: 7

Premium Essay

Human Rights In The 1950's

...issues came to light that many wanted to fix. Many strong people and organizations rose up to try to resolve these social issues. The two main issues during the 1950’s were civil rights and sexism. Both were large issues that many fought to try to resolve during these times. Civil rights was arguably the biggest issue during the 1950’s and saw many positives towards success. The NCAAP (National Association for Advancement of Colored People) become the most influential organization during the civil rights movement in the fifties. Important figures like Martin Luther King Jr. would also show up during this period. The NCAAP would imply a strategy of breaking uncivil laws through the legal system. It would work as in 1954, the legal case Brown vs. Board of Education would allow African Americans the practical right to study among Whites. This ruling was a big success for the NCAAP and African Americans everywhere. By 1955 MLK would begin his bus boycott around the south urging for non-segregation on Public transportation. The NCAAP would also influence the charge for the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and push for stronger push from the Government. Women would also be making a charge for equality in the 1950’s. During WWII many women for the first time held jobs and responsibilities outside the house. Following the war though women were forced out when the men returned. The tactic used against them were pressuring them and even government interference. Even though it worked for the most...

Words: 929 - Pages: 4

Premium Essay

Bender's Notes: The Two Definitions Of Nationalism

...Nationalism helped to unify Germany while ethnic groups in Austria-Hungary tore that area apart. In 1861, Bismarck takes control . There were over 300 German states, including Austria and Prussia. After the Congress of Vienna, there were only 39 states. The smaller number of German states encouraged nationalism among them. Wilhelm wanted more military but the bund (parliament) refused. He then names Junker, Otto Von Bismarck chancellor. Otto Von Bismarck used realpolitik, realism not idealism. Had policy of blood and iron. 3 wars united Germany, Denmark, Seven weeks war, Franco-Prussian war. Austro-Prussian war was vs denmark. Prussia took schleswig and austria took Holstein. Austro-Prussian war, prussia claimed that austria was mistreating germans in holstein, which led to a war between the 2, and prussia had a much stronger military. Prussia won holstein, and started german nationalism in the process. The third war, the franco-prussian war- most of the protestant states were unified, but southern catholic states remained with austria or independent. They needed to unite these remaining countries, they did this by having Bismarck reword the Ems Telegram in a way that provoked the french to start a war. France declared war and promptly lost. Then alsace-lorraine; southern german states enter united...

Words: 1128 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Rivers in America

...October 18, 2013 Socialism vs. Capitalism Contemporary History Professor Quincy Harris Capitalism and Socialism are two different types of systems. There lies a huge difference between the beliefs of both. I plan to discuss the differences of each and discuss the pros and cons of both as well as discuss which would be better for Americans. Sometime between 16th and 19th century capitalism first appeared. Once Feudalism failed Capitalism became the stronger system used in the western world. During the time of the Industrial Revolution Capitalism spread throughout the world. In order to become an industrialized nation then Capitalism had to be embraced. Socialism’s movement was started by Karl Marx (intellectual advocate.) Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the production and co-operative management of the economy. Socialism first appeared during the 19th century. According to (Historyworld.net).The essential characteristics of capitalism only become evident with an increase in scale in two quite separate contexts. One is the formation of joint-stock companies, in which investors pool their resources for a major commercial undertaking. The other, not evident until the Industrial Revolution, is the development of factories in which large numbers of workers are employed in a single private enterprise. Speculative trading enterprises in the Middle Ages are undertaken by individual merchants, operating in family groups or partnerships but...

Words: 1747 - Pages: 7

Free Essay

Franco and Fascist Spain

...The long term misunderstanding and simplification of RIGHT vs. LEFT terminology in political discourse is responsible for the misconception that “The RIGHT” with its emphasis on traditional, nationalistic, conservative or religious values is inevitably a step in the direction of the FAR RIGHT "ending in Fascism." Yet history has demonstrated that both political extremes share a basic common appeal to the “masses” and depend on a collectivist ideology that glorifies abstractions such as "The Nation," "The People," "The Throne" or "The Working Class." On the eve of World War II, various so called “Right Wing” authoritarian regimes of the conservative, traditional, national and religious type (always considered by the Left to be "proto-Fascist") in Ethiopia (Emperor Haile Selassi),  Austria (the “Clerical-Fascist” regime of Engelbert Dollfus and Kurt Schuschnigg), Poland (General Jozef Pilsudski and his successors), Yugoslavia (General Simovic and his supporters in the armed forces) and Greece (Ionnas Metaxas), all stood up and opposed Hitler and the Axis forces that threatened to blackmail, intimidate and subjugate their nations. All these leaders were labeled as “Fascist” by Soviet and Left-Wing propaganda up until the German invasion of the USSR in 1941. The Spanish Civil War has frequently been portrayed as an epic struggle between the forces of the LEFT (variously identified as progressive, liberal, socialist, internationalist, democratic and "anti-Fascist") and the RIGHT...

Words: 3129 - Pages: 13

Premium Essay

Feminist Contributions to International Relations

...| Political Science 2I03 – Global Politics Term Paper | Feminist Contributions to International Relations | Written By: Maryam Burney Professor: Dr. Andrew LuiTA: Meagan Kinsella Tutorial Section: T06 | Introduction Feminist research in the past twenty years has been successful enough to make women in international relations more visible. Feminism within IR has now evolved to an extent where disciplinary boundaries are being challenged and new issues and voices are being arisen. Feminists have productively established how the lives of sex workers, domestic servants, home-based workers and those who undergo grueling labour without pay, are also a part of global politics and the international economy (Hutchings et al., 2008, pg. 159). Feminist theory considers the effects of male dominance and how the socially constructed idea of “gender” affects international relations and its related fields. In essence it is not only simply about women, however, it is about the affiliation of masculinity and femininity as socially constructed groups that shape how we acknowledge and experience the political world. The differences that gender makes to global politics are vital to someone looking through a feminist lens. This also requires an individual to question whether or not it is appropriate to assume the characteristics of females (Ticker, 1997, pg. 616). Feminists within are international relations are troubled with a lot of misconceptions that leads to a negative perspective...

Words: 3019 - Pages: 13

Premium Essay

Qwertty

...would defend Darwin -This all leads to religious doubt Scientists are agnostics – don’t know if there is a God or not. There is no proof and evidence is not available to determine if there is or isn’t a God. German Higher Criticism -A bunch of philosophers of the 1870s basically trying to save the Bible from science fiction -Argue that you have to get rid of the things that are purely supernatural elements to save the Bible -You don’t want to throw out the whole Bible – there’s still a lot of relevant things -Morals, ethics and legal codes are still relevant Social Darwinism -Application of Darwins idea to society -“Survival of the fittest” – competition in natural world Realism (Naturalism) -Realistic art vs idealized art...

Words: 5140 - Pages: 21

Free Essay

Mmmmm

...1a) Descriptions of governments can be based on: Economy - what provides the goods and services that are bought, sold, and used? Capitalism-(Russia)--In a capitalist or free-market economy, people own their own businesses and property and must buy services for private use, such as healthcare Socialism (Norway)-- Socialist governments own many of the larger industries and provide education, health and welfare services while allowing citizens some economic choices Communism (Cuba)-- In a communist country, the government owns all businesses and farms and provides its people's healthcare, education and welfare. Politics - how is the government run? Dictatorship (Iraq)-- Rule by a single leader who has not been elected and may use force to keep control. In a military dictatorship, the army is in control. Usually, there is little or no attention to public opinion or individual rights. Totalitarian (China)-- Rule by a single political party. People are forced to do what the government tells them and may also be prevented from leaving the country. Theocracy (Iran)-- A form of government where the rulers claim to be ruling on behalf of a set of religious ideas, or as direct agents of a deity. Monarchy (Jordan)-- A monarchy has a king or queen, who sometimes has absolute power. Power is passed along through the family Parliamentary (Israel)-- A parliamentary system is led by representatives of the people. Each is chosen as a member of a political party and remains in power...

Words: 7307 - Pages: 30

Free Essay

Total Quality Management

...1 KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION SYLLABUS FOR PROVINCIAL MANAGEMENT SERVICE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION The Syllabus and standard for the Competitive Examination for the Provincial Management Service shall be as under : 1. The Examination shall include compulsory and optional subjects, and every candidate shall take all the compulsory subjects and opt for three of the optional subjects carrying 600 marks in all but not more than 200 marks from a single group. 2. A candidate shall answer the language papers in the language concerned. The question paper in Islamiat is to be answered in Urdu or English. All other papers must be answered in English. Violation of this instruction shall incur cancellation of the concerned paper(s) and consequently award of Zero. 3. The compulsory and optional subjects and maximum marks fixed for each subject shall be as below: Sr. No. 1 2 3 COMPULSORY SUBJECTS Subjects English (Précis & Composition) English Essay General Knowledge (a) Current Affairs 100 (b) Every Day Science 100 (c) Pakistan Affairs 100 Islamiat Viva Voce Total Maximum Marks 100 100 300 100 300 900 600 120 4 5 Qualifying marks in the aggregate of written papers: Qualifying marks in the Viva Voce: The non-Muslim candidates will have the option to take Islamiat as a compulsory subject or otherwise Pakistan Affairs (General Knowledge PaperIII) will be treated of 200 marks and counted in lieu of Islamiat. A candidate who fails to appear in any of the compulsory...

Words: 10965 - Pages: 44

Free Essay

Tyranny of Guilt; an Essay on Western Masochism (2010)

...Th e T yranny of Gui lt • Pa s c a l B ru c k n e r Translated from the French by s t ev e n r e n da l l The tyranny of Guilt An Essay on Western Masochism • P r i n c e t o n u n i v e r si t y P r e s s Princeton and Oxford english translation copyright © 2010 by Princeton university Press First published as La tyrannie de la pénitence: essai sur le masochisme occidental by Pascal Bruckner, copyright © 2006 by Grasset & Fasquelle Published by Princeton university Press, 41 William street, Princeton, new Jersey 08540 in the united kingdom: Princeton university Press, 6 oxford street, Woodstock, oxfordshire OX20 1TW press.princeton.edu all rights reserved library of congress cataloging-in-Publication data Bruckner, Pascal. [tyrannie de la pénitence. english] The tyranny of guilt: an essay on Western masochism / Pascal Bruckner; translated from the French by steven rendall. p. cm. includes index. isBn 978-0-691-14376-7 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. civilization, Western— 20th century. 2. civilization, Western—21st century. 3. international relations—Moral and ethical aspects. 4. Western countries—Foreign relations. 5. Western countries—intellectual life. 6. Guilt 7. self-hate (Psychology) 8. World politics. i. title. CB245.B7613 2010 909’.09821--dc22 2009032666 British library cataloging-in-Publication data is available cet ouvrage, publié dans le cadre d’un programme d’aide à la publication, bénéficie du soutien du Ministère des affaires étrangères et du service...

Words: 64873 - Pages: 260

Free Essay

Is Aanteken

...International Security Lecture 1 March 30th, 2015 The politics of security knowledge What is international security? We could start thinking about the security council of the UN But also about the invasion of Afghanistan (chapter 7 UN in order to secure the international security) We can also think about security in terms of the invasion of Iraq in 2003. This was a unilateral act of war, but sure it can also mean other things We can think of the national security agency, the agency in charge of spying all the signals and communications to a certain extent. What’s interesting about the NSA, it is seen as a threat to the security of the privacy. Lately, with the reports of the UN development programme, we start talking about HUMAN security (not military security, but rather the security of individuals, having a livelihood that’s acceptable). Whether security is international or not, it can be a rather confusing word The protection of values we hold dear. We search for it, we pursue it, we achieve it, we deny it to others. * what is to be secured? Is it the security of states? Or individuals? * What is the actual threat that we’re facing? Primarily to be dealing with military threats, or are there other types of threats we are facing. Essentially contested concept A concept that ‘inevitably’ involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users – Walter Gallie There can be ambiguity (one persons freedom-fighter is the other’s...

Words: 16869 - Pages: 68

Premium Essay

History Ib Review Notes

...Higher Level History Notes 19th Century Russia The Russian people are descendants of the ‘Rus’ who are thought to be a mixture of Scandinavian and Slavic origin and settled in that region out of ± 800 AD Byzantine Empire A major legacy of the Byzantine Empire for the Russians was the eastern orthodox or Greek Orthodox Church With the decline of Byzantium came a wave of conquest from the East, the Mongols until the 15th century (Tatars). To a large extent, the Mongols allowed Russians to maintain their way of life: - Slavic based languages including writing system (Cyrillic) - Orthodox religion The Russians adopted much from Asian culture and this led western Europeans to think less of the Russians Geographically Russia was isolated from the rest of Europe: - Entirely land locked (mostly) - Huge Plains of Eastern Europe prevented overland travel During these early years there were a series of muscovite princes based in Moscow and called themselves Tsars. By the 17th century the Romanov family became the ruling dynasty: - Alexander I (1801-1825) - Nicholas I (1825-1855) - Alexander II (1855-1881) - Alexander III (1881-1894) - Nicholas II (1894-1917) Under the rule of Peter the Great (1689-1728) Russia grew greatly in size and entered the European World www.ibscrewed.org The Russia of 1800 was one of the greatest autocracies in Europe where: - The Tsar’s rule was absolute - There was a small...

Words: 32400 - Pages: 130

Free Essay

Jon Von Nomann

...John von Neumann From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Von Neumann" redirects here. For other uses, see Von Neumann (disambiguation). The native form of this personal name is Neumann János Lajos. This article uses the Western name order. John von Neumann | Von Neumann in the 1940s | Born | Neumann János Lajos December 28, 1903 Budapest, Austria-Hungary | Died | February 8, 1957 (aged 53) Walter Reed General Hospital Washington, D.C. | Residence | United States | Nationality | Hungarian and American | Fields | Mathematics, physics, statistics, economics | Institutions | University of Berlin Princeton University Institute for Advanced Study Site Y, Los Alamos | Alma mater | University of Pázmány Péter ETH Zürich | Doctoral advisor | Lipót Fejér | Other academic advisors | László Rátz | Doctoral students | Donald B. Gillies Israel Halperin | Other notable students | Paul Halmos Clifford Hugh Dowker Benoit Mandelbrot[1] | Known for |  [show] | Notable awards | Bôcher Memorial Prize (1938) Enrico Fermi Award (1956) | Signature | John von Neumann (/vɒn ˈnɔɪmən/; December 28, 1903 – February 8, 1957) was a Hungarian and American pure and applied mathematician, physicist, inventor and polymath. He made major contributions to a number of fields,[2] including mathematics (foundations of mathematics, functional analysis, ergodic theory, geometry, topology, and numerical analysis), physics (quantum mechanics, hydrodynamics, and fluid dynamics)...

Words: 9454 - Pages: 38

Premium Essay

“Pro” vs. “Anti” Globalization: the New Divide

...The following text is the second chapter of ―L‘Essai sur l‘oeconomie‖ by Pierre Calame, published at Editions Charles-Léopold Mayer in 2009. Translated from French by Michael C. Behrent. Chapter 2. Globalization in Question 1. “Pro” vs. “Anti” Globalization: The New Divide For a number of years, the question of economic globalization—i.e., the interdependence of national systems of production and exchange and the ―financialization‖ of the world (revealed by the American subprime crisis in 2007)—has polarized public opinion. The problems stemming from economic globalization dominate the news: the outsourcing production in search of cheaper labor costs; the decreasing efficiency of national juridical and fiscal regulation; the waning of the very idea of sovereignty; the growing constraints within which politicians can act; the emergence of a small class of the immensely rich alongside the billions of poor; the rise of new financial actors—pension funds, hedge funds, and sovereign wealth funds—capable of destabilizing or seizing control of entire realms of the economy; and the emergence of China and India as new global economic actors, as their companies storm the industrial bastions of the United States and Europe. Should one be for or against globalization? Can we turn our backs on globalization, and return to national or regional systems of production and exchange that are autonomous, even autarkic? Is the large cosmopolitan corporation the new leviathan—a monster that...

Words: 12272 - Pages: 50