...The preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first neuron will begin at the "outflow" and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second neuron's cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers tend to be shorter than parasympathetic preganglionic fibers because sympathetic ganglia are often closer to the spinal cord while parasympathetic preganglionic fibers tend to project to and synapse with the postganglionic fiber close to the target...
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...theory in the form of mirror neurons would surely be scrutinized more than most, as the potential of such a theory has implications across many a field in psychology. However the concept of mirror neurons may have the potential to increase any understanding of how human and animal brains may function. Furthermore, in order to discuss possible implications of mirror neurons this essay has firstly presented a detailed description for the concept of mirror neurons, supporting any explanation with relevant research. In addition to any supporting research, research providing evidence to the contrary has been provided to enable a balanced analysis. Therefore, a balanced description of mirror neurons will facilitate any critical analysis for the possible psychological implications, thereby providing a balanced argument for the legitimacy of mirror neurons. Additionally, following any analysis of relevant research, a balanced and supported conclusion was produced in order to summarise any analysed research. Accordingly, the concept of mirror neurons first came to be in the winter of 1991when a paper entitled ‘Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study’ Di Pellegrino et al (1992), the paper was originally rejected by Nature for its lack of general interest. G. Rizzolatti, M.Fabbri-Destro (2010). However, it was this paper from the University of Parma published in 1992 by the Experimental brain journal, which first showed evidence of mirror neurons in animals. G. Rizzolatti...
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...the world, from sensing it to acting upon it. | Parts of the nervous system: the spinal cord, motor neurons, and sensory neurons. Sense organs in muscles transmit sensory information to spinal cord interneurons, that connect to motor neurons, that in turn activate muscles. (Adapted from Kandell et al., 2000). | | Parts of the nervous system: the spinal cord, motor neurons, and sensory neurons. Sense organs in muscles transmit sensory information to spinal cord interneurons, that connect to motor neurons, that in turn activate muscles. (Adapted from Kandell et al., 2000). | Neurons – The cellular building block of the nervous system is the neuron. These cells are typically excitable: they can “spike,” a process by which their membrane voltage quickly changes, and they transmit information. Neurons can transduce signals from the outside world into spikes, transmit spikes to each other via connections called “synapses,” and connect to muscles, in order to turn the muscle on and make it contract. When spikes happen in neurons, they may zoom along the axon (typically a long thin part of the neuron), traveling to a different part of the body. The frequencies involved in neural transmission are in the audible range – the energy of the spike is between 300 and 1000 Hz. That means after amplification we can hear the spikes of neurons, if played out of a speaker. Neurons spike due to special ion channels in their...
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...Elements of Behavior Neurons are the basic elements of behavior because they are responsible for all signals that travel between the brain and every area of the body. In this paper, I will explain what neurons are, how they work and how they communicate, thus establishing why they are referred to as the basic elements of behavior. Neurons are nerve cells; they are made up of a cell body, dendrites, an axon, myelin sheath and terminal buttons. The cell body has a nucleus that determines how the cell will function. The dendrites are a cluster of fibers at one end of the cell body and the other end of the cell body is the long axon. The axon ends in terminal buttons. The axon is covered by a myelin sheath which acts as insulation and speeds up the message the neuron is carrying; the thicker the sheath, the faster the message can travel. Diagrams of neurons actually resemble a tree, with the dendrites as its branches, the axon as the trunk and the terminal buttons like the roots. Neurons are unique from other cells in our body in that they have the ability to communicate with other cells. Neurons can send messages over very long distances. Dendrites extend out to receive messages from other neurons. Once received the message travels into the cell body, down the axon and out to the terminal buttons. The terminal buttons then release the message to be received by the dendrites of a neighboring neuron. The messages that travel through a neuron are in the form of an...
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...sleep well; it could be because of serotonin imbalance,” or “When I feel good, my dopamine is flowing.” • This company sells dietary supplements to boost neurotransmitter production. This page defines neurotransmitters. Why might it not be desirable to use this as a source for an academic paper on neurotransmitters? Part One: Define & Discuss “Action potentials travel down the axon to the terminal buttons, or end feet, of the neuron. Then a change occurs in the synapse, the space between the end foot and other neurons. Located near the synapse is the neuron’s terminal button, where neurotransmitters— the chemicals that are transmitted from one neuron to another— are stored in sacs.” (Psychology CH.3 pg ) The synaptic vesicles, chemical sacs located in the terminal button, makes the vesicles release neurotransmitters once electric charges from action potentials are experienced. Once neurons are released they may drift across synapse and attached to receptors sites on the postsynaptic membrane, on other sides of the synapse. If neurons are unable float into the synapse, reuptake may occur, a process by which neurons reabsorb transmitters floating freely. When a neuron is excited it...
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...SEGMENTATION WITH NEURAL NETWORK B.Prasanna Rahul Radhakrishnan Valliammai Engineering College Valliammai Engineering College prakrish_2001@yahoo.com krish_rahul_1812@yahoo.com Abstract: Our paper work is on Segmentation by Neural networks. Neural networks computation offers a wide range of different algorithms for both unsupervised clustering (UC) and supervised classification (SC). In this paper we approached an algorithmic method that aims to combine UC and SC, where the information obtained during UC is not discarded, but is used as an initial step toward subsequent SC. Thus, the power of both image analysis strategies can be combined in an integrative computational procedure. This is achieved by applying “Hyper-BF network”. Here we worked a different procedures for the training, preprocessing and vector quantization in the application to medical image segmentation and also present the segmentation results for multispectral 3D MRI data sets of the human brain with respect to the tissue classes “ Gray matter”, “ White matter” and “ Cerebrospinal fluid”. We correlate manual and semi automatic methods with the results. Keywords: Image analysis, Hebbian learning rule, Euclidean metric, multi spectral image segmentation, contour tracing. Introduction: Segmentation can be defined as the identification of meaningful image components. It is a fundamental task in image processing providing the basis for any kind of...
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...Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 5: Energy, Exercise and Coordination June 2010 Scientific Article for use with Question 7 Do not return the Insert with the question paper. Paper Reference 6BI05/01 Turn over N37096A ©2010 Edexcel Limited. 1/1/1/1/1/ *N37096A* Scientific Article for use with Question 7 It’s All in the Mind The link between the brain as a physical organ and what we feel in our conscious mind has long been the subject of research, particularly where we appear to be unable to control aspects of mood or behaviour and where normal life is affected. Stress, pain and depression can be explained in terms of nerve impulses and brain chemistry, and the causes of Parkinson’s disease are well understood, but finding reliable ways of correcting problems has proved elusive. Understanding more about how the brain works may well lead to new methods for treating such problems. Dancing Worms and Deep Depression In a laboratory in Germany, a tiny worm dances to flashes of light. A flash of yellow and it darts forward. A flash of blue and it jerks back. Yellow, forward, blue, back – right on cue every time. The worm is not a toy or a robot but a living creature. It has been engineered so that its nerves and muscles can be controlled with light. With each flash of blue its neurons fire electric pulses, causing the muscles they control to clench. A flash of yellow stops the nerves firing, relaxing the worm’s muscles and lengthening its body once again. The worm is...
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...Neurotransmitters Joy Pachowicz PSY 350 Professor Alina Perez – Sheppe April 24, 2011 Introduction The purpose of this paper is to discuss the six major neurotransmitters. There are more than six neurotransmitters; but, in this paper, we will speak of six. To understand what neurotransmitters do; it will be necessary to do a small review of some other terms that will be included in explaining the six major neurotransmitters. Neurons are basic elements of the nervous system; and, unlike other cells, they can communicate with and transmit information to others cells over long distances. The neuron has a cell body and a cluster of fibers at one end that are called dendrites. The dendrites receive messages that other neurons communicate. (Feldman, p.61). The messages received by dendrites are carried by the axon, which is at the other end of the neuron. So, at one end of the neuron is the axon and at the other end are the dendrites. The dendrites receive chemical messages and the axons carry them to other neurons. (Feldman, p.61) The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a receiving neuron communicates with the dendrites of the sending neuron. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to dendrites of the receiving neuron. This paper will discuss six different neurotransmitters, their functions and how they affect mental illness and medical diseases. The first neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine...
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...Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) that threatens to eliminate our most basic and human capabilities. Over the course of this research paper we will explore various aspects of ALS which include the historical context of ALS, symptoms or characteristics of the disease, causes of ALS on a cellular level, as well as diagnosis and management. In 1869 ALS was first acknowledged by a french neurologist named Jean-Martin Charcot a man historically renowned as the “founder of modern neurology”. However it wasn't until 1939 that...
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...Regulatory Behavior Paper Debra Sebastiano PSY/340 May 18, 2015 Professor Mark Schmitz The nervous system is accountable for organizing the body's daily actions. It not only controls the upkeep of regular roles but also the body's capability to deal with emergency circumstances. When talking about the nervous system we are talking about three overall functions, the first function is the sensory function, the second is an interpretative function and the third is a motor function. The sensory nerves collect data from the inside and outside (environment) of the body and then transport that data to the central nervous system (CNS). The sensory information that was transported to the CNS is then processed and interpreted. The motor nerves transport information from the CNS to the muscles and the glands of the body (The Nervous System, 2008). The nervous system is separated into two parts - the first part is called the central nervous system (CNS), the central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is protected by bone and blocked from damage by the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The brain is an organ of soft gray matter tissue, which is compacted within the skull of vertebrates. There is also white matter which can be found deep inside the brain, at the border of the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. The brain is divided into four parts the cerebrum, diencephalons, brain stem, and cerebellum: * Cerebrum – this is the biggest part of the brain,...
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...Cell. Vol 44, 817-829, March 28, 1986, Copyright 0 1986 by Cell Press Genetic Control of Programmed Cell Death in the Nematode C. elegans Hilary M. Ellis,’ and H. Robert Horvitz Department of Biology Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 The phenomenon of programmed cell death raises a number of questions. Why are cells generated only to die? By what mechanisms do they die? How is it determined during development which cells die? C. elegans is well suited for studies that attempt to answer these questions. This nematode has fewer than 1000 somatic cells, and fixed patterns of cell divisions, migrations, and deaths generate individuals of invariant anatomy (Sulston and Horvitz, 1977; Kimble and Hirsh, 1979; Sulston et al., 1983). Thus, specific developmental events can be examined reproducibly and at the resolution of single cells. In addition, the short generation time (3 days at 20%) and large brood size of C. elegans facilitate genetic manipulations (Brenner, 1974; Herman and Horvitz, 1980). We describe here the isolation and characterization of mutations that prevent the initiation of programmed cell death in C. elegans, causing cells that would normally die to survive instead. These mutations define two genes, ted-3 and ted-4, that may be involved in determining which cells express the fate of programmed cell death. Summary The wild-type functions of the genes ted-3 and ted-4 are required for the initiation of programmed cell deaths...
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...algorithmic information theoretic method is presented for object-level summarization of meaningful changes in image sequences. Object extraction and tracking data are represented as an attributed tracking graph (ATG), whose connected subgraphs are compared using an adaptive information distance measure, aided by a closed-form multi-dimensional quantization. The summary is the clustering result and feature subset that maximize the gap statistic. The notion of meaningful summarization is captured by using the gap statistic to estimate the randomness deficiency from algorithmic statistics. When applied to movies of cultured neural progenitor cells, it correctly distinguished neurons from progenitors without requiring the use of a fixative stain. When analyzing intra-cellular molecular transport in cultured neurons undergoing axon specification, it automatically confirmed the role of kinesins in axon specification. Finally, it was able to differentiate wild type from genetically modified thymocyte cells. Index Terms: Algorithmic information theory, Algorithmic statistics, Information distance, Gap statistic, Clustering. Various portions of this research were supported by the Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems, under the Engineering Research Centers Program of the National Science Foundation (Award Number EEC-9986821), and by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. 1. INTRODUCTION Given a set of image sequences, we...
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...Psychology Term Paper Assignment Monday Night Class Abstract In the society that we are living right now, we can find a lot of different kinds of illness and health problems. A large number of these diseases have a cure and they also have a happy end; but there is one that does not. Over the past 20 years, Alzheimer’s disease came from an unknown dark side. Once studied as a strange disorder; it is one of the most common health problems that affect a lot of people around the world and their families. More of a 90% of Alzheimer’s disease cases shows up in people around 60 years old. Even do we ignore how this treats starts; science people have found that the change inside the brain starts 10 to 20 years before we can observe the symptoms. Knowing a little more about this illness, will help us to understand these people that are in need of love, attention and comprehension. Alzheimer’s disease In the society that we are living right now, we can find a lot of different kinds of illness and health problems. A lot of these diseases have a cure and they also have a happy end; but there is one that does not. Alzheimer’s disease is a very ordinary illness that severely affects our society, specially the older population. It is a fact that we have to deal with. Unfortunately, there are a lot of people out there that suffer this terrible illness, and they need help. This research paper gave me the...
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...Neural Plasticity Joelle Flythe, Jennifer Parr, Kristina Catalan, Mich Haas Psych 340 May 16, 2016 Amy Hennings Neural Plasticity Have you ever wondered what happened to a person when they have a stroke? Better yet what happens to the person's brain? Does the brain change? Or how will the person recover from the stroke? These are all questions that this paper will discuss. The information that follows will be in great details about a stroke, about our patient by the name of Stephanie. Stephanie has had a stroke. We want to ensure that Stephanie, our patient, understands what is next to come after her stroke. We will focus on the recovery process, the do's and do not's and the functions and limitations of a person who has had a stroke. What is a stroke? According to the American Heart Association, a "Stroke is a disease that affects the arteries leading to and within the brain. It is the number 5 cause of death and a leading cause of disability in the United States. A stroke occurs when a blood vessel that carries oxygen and nutrients to the brain is either blocked by a clot; it bursts or ruptures. When that happens, part of the brain cannot get the blood (and oxygen) it needs, so it and brain cells die" (American Heart Association, 2016.) When a person has a stoke it is unpredictable and affects the brain in a major way. When a person has a stroke, they can become paralyzed, lose memory and have to learn...
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...I have been tasked with writing a paper about amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The ALS Association website has described ALS in a very clear and concise manner and I would like to share that with you know. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord. Motor neurons reach from the brain to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the muscles throughout the body. The progressive degeneration of the motor neurons in ALS eventually leads to their death. When the motor neurons die, the ability of the brain to initiate and control muscle movement is lost. With voluntary muscle action progressively affected, patients in the later stages of the disease may become totally paralyzed. A-myo-trophic comes from the Greek language. "A" means no or negative. "Myo" refers to muscle, and "Trophic" means nourishment–"No muscle nourishment." When a muscle has no nourishment, it "atrophies" or wastes away. "Lateral" identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that signal and control the muscles are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening ("sclerosis") in the region. As motor neurons degenerate, they can no longer send impulses to the muscle fibers that normally result in muscle movement. Early symptoms of ALS often include increasing muscle weakness, especially involving the arms and legs, speech, swallowing or breathing. When muscles...
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