How did the Cold War develop between 1944-53?

1947 – Truman Doctrine (March) Marshall Plan (June)
1948 – Communist regime established in Czechoslovakia (Feb) Berlin blockade begins (June)

US relationship with Europe after WWII: * Truman was under pressure to adopt a more hard-line approach towards communism following Kennan’s Telegram and Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ speech and the threat of communist takeover in Greece. * No suggestion that the US envisaged any long-term military or political entanglement in Europe beyond the time it took to establish political and economic reconstruction there. * Each side regarded the other as a threat to national security and being expansionist and a global strategic threat. * By September 1946 the emergence of the Cold War was seemingly irreversible.

Why Truman introduced his Doctrine (first step containment?) * Keep the SU from aiding the Greek communist movement * Protect democracy and freedom in response to Soviet aggression and ideological expansionism in Eastern Europe * Demonise SU and Communism * Threaten and provoke USSR * Truman wanted a Cold War because that would justify the US’s role as a defender of the freedom and function as world power * Develop the US’s global economic power – if the US is protector, other sates would be militarily and economically dependent of the US – close trade relations.

Truman emphasised in his doctrine the differences between Capitalism and Communism. The US would support ‘freedom’ through economic and financial aid, which was essential to stable and orderly political process. * Historian: Richard Crockatt (The Fifty Years War 1995) commented ‘Bipolarity (two opposite or contradictory ideas or natures) was not merely a matter of structure of international relations but a state of mind.’

The European Recovery Programme – nicknamed The Marshall Plan (second step towards containment): * Five year plan (European Economic Recovery Play (ERP)), providing about $13 billion to 16 European countries in Europe: US economic strategy to benefit the US economy by helping economic reconstruction and promoting European unity. * A condition of receiving the aid was that some of the money had to be used importing goods from the UA and recipients had to share economic information with the USA. * Marshall Aid took the form of fuel, raw materials, goods, loans and food, machinery and advisers. It jump-started rapid European economic growth, and stopped the spread of Communism. * Marshall Aid had a huge effect on Europe; the years 1948-1952 were a time of massive economic growth. * Britain was the main recipient, getting $3 billion aid. France, Italy, West Germany and the Netherlands all received huge amounts. * It also stopped the spread of Communism – one of the hungry teenage boys in Germany who was given soup by American trucks driving onto his schoolyard was Helmut Kohl: who grew up to be the first Chancellor of a free and unified Germany. * Historians have argued that the Marshall Plan contributed significantly to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (1951) and existence of the European Economic Community (EEC) from 1957.

US perspective of the Marshall Plan: * Marshall feared the USA’s long-term relationship with Europe would deteriorate and lead to unemployment/depression/surplus production in the US. * Ensure economic prosperity.

Soviet Union perspective: * Clear example of American economic imperialism, trying to undermine their influence and security. * Some Communist dominated Coalition governments were interested in receiving Marshall Aid, i.e. Hungary, Czechoslovakia: this would have resulted in these states committing themselves to a restoration of market economies (prices of goods/services set by forces of supply/demand, minimal interference of state) – and a degree of integration of their economies with the West.

The Soviet responded by establishing Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) to unite and coordinate the role and actions of Communist groups throughout Europe, to function as a united whole.
Stalin ordered Eastern European states that had expressed an interest in the Marshall Aid to reverse their decision. The Soviet Union then tightened their control of Eastern Europe.

Overall, the Marshall Plan was not successful. It was not successful in undermining the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe but simply accelerated the divisions of Europe and undermined the possibility of international relations being based on some cooperation.

The Berlin Blockade (1948-9)

This was caused by the fact that the Western zones run by Britain, US and France benefited from Marshall aid where as living conditions remained low and slow in East Germany as they were denied access to Marshall aid. In 1948 , Britain, US and France established a separate West German state (Federal Republic of Germany) and introduced a new currency to provide economic stability and aid recovery. Therefore, Stalin took action in 1948 - road, rail and canal links with West Berlin were severed.
The results of the blockade were: * Bevin (British foreign secretary) argued that a retreat from Berlin would hand propaganda victory to SU and illustrate first challenge to containment in Europe. Bevin was adamant that the allies must not use military force to access W. Berlin and it must be kept supplied with essentials – supplies were airlifted into Berlin. * In May 1949 Stalin was forced to concede defeat and lifted the blockade, his aim – to stop the creation of a separate W. German state had failed – the policy of containment had proved a success and this boosted morale after the Czech loss to communism. The blockade added to and reinforced America’s certainty that it had to consolidate its relationship with Europe.
This was significance because it marked the first major flashpoint of the cold war, and it ended any hope of an agreement the East and West over Germany. Lastly, it illustrated the need for a more coordinated approach by the west to prepare for Soviet aggression – NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation).

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)

The principle of NATO was that an attack on one of its members would be seen as an attack on all (Soviet response Warsaw Pact). NATO was a defensive organisation to protect the West and its interests.
This was significant because it involved the US in a military alliance in peacetime and made it clear to Soviet Union that there would be no return to isolationism. The Soviet Union viewed, particularly Stalin, that the creation of NATO was a deliberate provocation action but he was able to enhance the capability of the Soviet Union by breaking the US nuclear monopoly (SU exploded its first atomic bomb in 1949).
Europe had already formed the Western European Union (Britain, France and Benelux countries). It was to prevent any form of German resurgence that might threaten the security of W. Europe - creation signalled to the US that the West was under threat from Communist assurgency and calling for a more proactive US security role – ultimately in the form of NATO. Historians regard its creation as a major factor in the polarisation of Cold War and of Europe being the focal point of Cold War confrontation.

Communist threat in the Far East – 1950

Communist China: * Stalin loaned money China and provided them with military assistance in the on-going Civil War in China. Soviet support for China had heightened the certainty of a long term Cold War relationship between China and US.

Containment of Japan: * Japan became the focal point of America’s policy in Asia. By 1951 the US had agreed a bilateral security treaty with Japan. * Japan was able to regain its sovereignty and free itself from US occupation but only within a framework of a close alliance with US.
The Communist takeover in Vietnam and The Korean war was also extremely significant.

The Korean War 1950-5

In 1950 Communist North Korea invaded non-communist South Korea. * West Korea assumed Stalin had encouraged the attack but he was not directly involved and endorsed China only, who in turn endorsed North Korea with military aid. * The Truman administration acted immediately; they provided military assistance to S. Korea under the support of the UN (United Nations). * By 1950 the South had been saved from N. Korean forces. The US invaded the North and this marked a shift from the policy of containment towards one of attempting to roll back Communism from the Korean peninsula. * The success of the UN forces in pushing back North Korea had presented the US with an opportunity to weaken Communism in Asia. However, China intervened on the side of North Korea and was successful in driving the US arm South. * On 27 July 1953 an armistice was finally agreed China, North Korea and the US signed a ceasefire; South Korea had no choice but to accept it. The significance of Korean War: * Indicated to the US and confirmed Cold War expansion and perception of rise in Communism; * War appeared to be a victory for containment – spread of Communism to North had been halted; * Reinforced the US’s commitment to containment and made it a keystone of US foreign policy; * American military power was expended in Europe and the way was paved for West Germany’s rearmament; * Cold war had been globalised and containment militarised; * Ultimately had a negative impact on SU; * Sino-Soviet relationship called into question – China now seemed like to become a super power over USSR.