...Lab Sheet - Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Introduction A gene is a unit of heredity. A gene is also the segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that codes for a specific protein. It is the roughly 25,000 genes of the human genome that make the entire human organism. This lab illustrates the processes that take us from gene to protein - in other words, the steps that take us from four nucleic acids to the human organism. Objective * Describe the DNA structure and the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology. Background Genes and DNA Genes code for proteins. It is the specific action or function of these proteins that determines cellular shape and cellular function. The processes that take us from the sequence of nucleotides to protein are collectively called the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology. The process begins with a sequence of nucleotides. There are four nucleotides in DNA- adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine abbreviated A, G, C, and T, respectively. The structure of DNA is a double helix- a winding staircase structure where the rungs of the staircase are made up of the nucleotides; the railing, or backbone, is made up of sugar- in the case of DNA, the backbone is made up of the sugar, deoxyribose. The nucleotides pair up as complementary pairs to make up the “rungs”- A always pairs with T, C always pairs with G; this is called the Law of Complementary Base Pairs. The complementary pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds- weak bonds that can be broken and...
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...Topic 1 Basic Molecules of Cells Chapter 3 The Molecules of Cells PowerPoint Lectures for Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko Learning outcomes: 1. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large molecules from a small set of molecules 2. Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain their functions 3. Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and explain their functions 4. Describe the chemical structure of proteins and their importance to cells 5. Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids and how they relate to inheritance Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Rearrange these in the correct order: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon Carbon-based molecules are called organic compounds. Methane (CH4) is one of the simplest organic compounds. – Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms to the carbon atom. – Each of the four lines in the formula for methane represents a pair of shared electrons. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Three representatives of methane (CH4) Structural formula Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model The four single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron. Different bond angles and shapes occur when carbon atoms form...
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...D38–D51 Nucleic Acids Research, 2011, Vol. 39, Database issue doi:10.1093/nar/gkq1172 Published online 20 November 2010 Database resources of the National Center for Biotechnology Information Eric W. Sayers1,*, Tanya Barrett1, Dennis A. Benson1, Evan Bolton1, Stephen H. Bryant1, Kathi Canese1, Vyacheslav Chetvernin1, Deanna M. Church1, Michael DiCuccio1, Scott Federhen1, Michael Feolo1, Ian M. Fingerman1, Lewis Y. Geer1, Wolfgang Helmberg2, Yuri Kapustin1, David Landsman1, David J. Lipman1, Zhiyong Lu1, Thomas L. Madden1, Tom Madej1, Donna R. Maglott1, Aron Marchler-Bauer1, Vadim Miller1, Ilene Mizrachi1, James Ostell1, Anna Panchenko1, Lon Phan1, Kim D. Pruitt1, Gregory D. Schuler1, Edwin Sequeira1, Stephen T. Sherry1, Martin Shumway1, Karl Sirotkin1, Douglas Slotta1, Alexandre Souvorov1, Grigory Starchenko1, Tatiana A. Tatusova1, Lukas Wagner1, Yanli Wang1, W. John Wilbur1, Eugene Yaschenko1 and Jian Ye1 1 Downloaded from http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on March 20, 2015 National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Building 38A, 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA and 2University Clinic of Blood Group Serology and Transfusion Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 3, A-8036 Graz, Austria Received September 16, 2010; Revised October 29, 2010; Accepted November 1, 2010 ABSTRACT In addition to maintaining the GenBank nucleic acid sequence database, the National Center for Biotechnology...
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...2.3 Chemistry of water Water is a polar molecule The shape of a water molecule and its polarity make hydrogen bonding possible, A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom. (They are partial charging) * Can occur between atoms of different molecule or within the same molecule * A single hydrogen bond is easily broken while multiple hydrogen bonds are collectively quite strong. * Help to maintain the proper structure and function of complex molecules such as proteins and DNA. Oxygen attracts the shared electric and is partially negative Hydrogens are partially positive. Properties of water * Water molecules cling together because of hydrogen bonding * This association gives water many of its unique chemical properties * Water has a high heat capacity * The presence of many hydrogen bonds allow water to absorb a large amount of thermal heat without a great change in temperature * The temperature of water rises and falls slowly * Allows organisms to maintain internal temperatures. * Water has a high heat of vaporization * Hydrogen bonds must be broken to evaporate water. * Bodies of organism cool when their heat is used to evaporate water. * Water is a good Solvent * Water is good solvent because of its polarity * Polar substances dissolve readily in water * Hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water (sugar) ...
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... What Information Is in a Human Genome? Clinical Connection 1.1 Exome Sequencing Saves a Boy’s Life Bioethics: Choices for the Future Genetic Testing and Privacy CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 1 provides a glimpse of the basic concepts of genetics and genomics, and offers examples of DNA information impacting daily life. In this new era of genomics, individuals have access to their own genetic information, and health care providers are learning how to incorporate DNA data into diagnostic and therapeutic medicine. Bioethics deals with issues of privacy, discrimination, and justice that arise from use and misuse of genetic information. DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genomes are the levels of genetic information, and they impact biology at the cell, tissue, organ, individual, family, and population levels. Genes encode proteins, and the exome is the small part of the genome that does so. Most traits arise from interactions of genes and environmental factors. Genetic information is in health care to identify individuals, in investigating the environment, and in understanding evolution. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 Introducing Genes and Genomes 1. Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with inherited traits and their variation, and how these traits are passed from one generation to the next (heredity). 2. With continuing analysis of human genome sequences, human genetics has grown from a largely academic science to touch many areas...
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...DNA genotype and the action of proteins in influencing phenotype Distinguish between the effects of base substitution and insertion or deletion mutations 7. 8. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. You will be able to 9. Distinguish between lytic and lysogenic viral reproductive cycles and describe how RNA viruses are duplicated within a host cell 10. Explain how an emerging virus can become a threat to human health 11. Identify three methods of transfer for bacterial genes 12. Distinguish between viroids and prions 13. Describe the effects of transferring plasmids from donor to recipient cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains codons for protein sequences Eukaryotic mRNA has interrupting sequences called introns, separating the coding regions called exons Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing before leaving the nucleus – Cap added to 5’ end: single guanine nucleotide – Tail added to 3’ end: Poly-A tail of 50–250 adenines – RNA splicing: removal of introns and joining...
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...Radiation is part of life and is comes in different forms. Radiation from the sun provides warmth and light but other forms of radiation can cause harm to the human body. Scientists have also found ways to cure the body with radiation. The different types of radiation highlighted in this paper are Alpha, Bata, and Gamma. Radiation particles with an electrical charge are alpha particles. Alpha particles have the lowest penetrating power of the primary forms of radiation. These particles cannot travel more than inches and cannot penetrate the outermost layer of human skin. Even a piece of paper will block alpha particles. Although alpha particle cannot penetrate the skin, if the radioactive material makes it’s way into the body, by inhalation or ingestion, the concentrated radiation can destroy tissue and organs. Beta particles are more powerful than alpha particles. Beta particles are capable of traveling faster and can penetrate deeper into the skin than alpha particles. Beta particles can travel about ten yards depending on the isotope and can penetrate tissue several millimeters. Beta radiation causes a slight risk to skin and will generally burn skin with prolonged exposure. The danger comes with contact to the mouth or eyes. Very similar to alpha particles, the greatest threat of radioactive beta particle is when the particles entry the body. Beta particles are capable of immense internal damage to tissue and organ in much the same way alpha particles affects...
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...Biology 160 Lecture 1 Introduction, Chemistry and Molecules Introductory Concepts for Studying Biology & Science • Chapter 1 What is science? • Knowledge gained through careful observation, experimentation and reasoning. • Science is: – Explanatory – Testable – Reproducible – Predictive – Tentative Questions of Science Scientific discoveries create complex questions: – Ex. Atom – Should scientists be free to pursue any research? • Cloning/Stem cell. – Should government control scientific progress? – Progression of science. • Research normally follows a logical progression. • Interest focuses on problems that impact humanity. The Importance of Publication • Results of research are submitted for publication. – peer review by other scientists. • Publication and peer review establish the legitimacy of scientific progress. What is a Hypothesis? • A tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. – A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. – Stated simply and concisely • At the end of your experiment you will accept it or reject it. Hypothesis-based science • Pose and test hypotheses – Hypothesis-based science involves • • Observations, questions, hypotheses as tentative answers to questions Deductions lead to predictions, and then tests of predictions to see if a hypothesis is falsifiable. Scientific Method. • – In experiments designed to test hypotheses •...
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... C O O C O O These come in many varieties: fats, oils, cholesterol, steroids, and more, and have uses in cellular membranes, insulating and protecting, and also act as a minor energy supply C H Proteins Proteins have several uses, such as for transport and structure; but they are also the basic components of all enzymes, hormones, antibodies, haemoglobin, ribosomes, and many more materials Water H O H Another essential life component, this is the most important content of many reactions forming most of these molecules, and also metabolic reactions; water is also an essential structural component in plants, and in the diet of animals Nucleic acids These are responsible for the formation of both DNA and all forms of RNA molecules, consisting of individual nucleotides www.asbiology101.wordpress.com Enzymes These are proteins which are used in many reactions – their function is to catalyse metabolic reactions in the vast majority of living organisms There is a lot of chemistry knowledge in the Biological Molecules section of this module, which is why it is important that you are aware of a few chemistry basics, such as the types of chemical bond. This unit on Biological Molecules is centred...
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... Men Calories ( KCAL) | 2000 | 2500 | Total Fats | 70g | 95g | Unsaturated fat | 50g | 65g | Saturated fat | 20g | 30g | Carbohydrates | 230g | 300g | Protein | 45g | 55g | Fruit and Veg | 5 A Day | 5 A Day | Salt | 4g | 4g | With this information you will be able to calculate the calorie intake for each group. Fruit and Vegetables should be 33% (660kcal 825kcal) of your daily food intake. Fruit and Vegetables in your diet have many positive effects upon health. Their high fibre content helps control blood glucose levels, may reduce cholesterol and probably reduces the risk of colon cancer and other cancers. Also help with digestion and the excrement of unwanted foods via the large bowel. They contain antioxidants and phytochemicals that could reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. More than any other food groups they contain essential vitamins and minerals that are vital for good health and disease prevention. The more colourful the fruit and vegetables are the healthier they usually are so as an...
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...of technology, scientists can now create animals directly from gene modification. Genetic modification is described as the science used to change the characteristics of an organism genetic component and manipulate the deoxyribonucleic acid structures using technology. “Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is nucleic acid that carries hereditary information about traits of an organism and carries the instructions for all the characteristics that organism inherits, it consist of two chain of nucleotides twisted into a double helix” (Starr, C., Evers, C. A., Starr, L. 2013). Genetically modified animals are made from embryonic stem cells carrying two copies of gene one from the male and the other from the female. Scientists cut and join DNA from different sources then transfer it into the organism so it has the modified genes and from that procedure, a new set of genes is created. Manipulating the DNA and transforming certain gene to create a new life is called recombinant DNA (rDNA) technique. Scientists use recombinant DNA technique to modify the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell which carries genetic instructions from one organism to another and to improve specific characteristics of an animal or to introduce a new trait that is resistant to diseases and may enhance the growth of animals. In addition, the changes introduced to that animal can be transferred to their offspring. “Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is two pieces of DNA from different organisms that have been joined together into...
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...Biology- The scientific study of life. Life is structured on a size scale ranging from the molecular (smallest components of life) to the global (Earth) scale. Biology encompasses a large variety of life on earth. Uses of Biology in every day life: Molecular Biology – (Biology that deals with the smallest components of life such as cells, DNA, RNA) is used to solve crimes and reveal ancestry. Ecology- The scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment is used to address environmental issues. Neuroscience- Field in biology that deals with brains; and Evolutionary science- the study of the evolution of organisms are being used to reshape psychology and sociology. Characteristics of Life: Living things are organized – The organs or vital components that make up a living organism each perform a specific function in an organized way such that it allows the organism to live. Regulation – All living organisms have the ability to regulate and accommodate to changes in their environment in order to stay alive. Growth and Development – Living organisms have the ability to grow and develop. Energy Utilization – Living organisms use energy or convert energy from a food source in order to carry or be able to perform different functions. For example, the human body utilizes carbohydrates found in food as a source of energy. With this energy, humans are able to perform simple tasks such as walking, talking, breathing, etc. Response to environment – Similar...
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...|INTRODUCTION | Bacteria, one-celled organisms visible only through a microscope. Bacteria live all around us and within us. The air is filled with bacteria, and they have even entered outer space in spacecraft. Bacteria live in the deepest parts of the ocean and deep within Earth. They are in the soil, in our food, and on plants and animals. Even our bodies are home to many different kinds of bacteria. Our lives are closely intertwined with theirs, and the health of our planet depends very much on their activities. Bacterial cells are so small that scientists measure them in units called micrometers (µm). One micrometer equals a millionth of a meter (0.0000001 m or about 0.000039 in), and an average bacterium is about one micrometer long. Hundreds of thousands of bacteria would fit on a rounded dot made by a pencil. Bacteria lack a true nucleus, a feature that distinguishes them from plant and animal cells. In plants and animals the saclike nucleus carries genetic material in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Bacteria also have DNA but it floats within the cell, usually in a loop or coil. A tough but resilient protective shell surrounds the bacterial cell. Biologists classify all life forms as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria. They lack a defined nucleus of the sort found in plant and animal cells. More complex organisms, including all plants and animals, whose cells have a nucleus, belong to the group...
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...NINTH EDITION Burton’s MICROBIOLOGY FOR THE HEALTH SCIENCES Paul G. Engelkirk, PhD, MT(ASCP), SM(AAM) Biomedical Educational Services (Biomed Ed) Belton, Texas Adjunct Faculty, Biology Department Temple College, Temple, TX Janet Duben-Engelkirk, EdD, MT(ASCP) Biomedical Educational Services (Biomed Ed) Belton, Texas Adjunct Faculty, Biotechnology Department Temple College, Temple, TX Acquisitions Editor: David B. Troy Product Manager: John Larkin Managing Editor: Laura S. Horowitz, Hearthside Publishing Services Marketing Manager: Allison Powell Designer: Steve Druding Compositor: Maryland Composition/Absolute Service Inc. Ninth Edition Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 2000 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, © 1996 Lippincott-Raven, © 1992, 1988, 1983, 1979 JB Lippincott Co. 351 West Camden Street Baltimore, MD 21201 Printed in the People’s Republic of China All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including as photocopies or scanned-in or other electronic copies, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Materials appearing in this book prepared by individuals as part of their official duties as U.S. government employees...
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...invading microbes that may cause disease. The first line of defence is non-specific and aims to stop microbes from entering the body. The skin and mucous membranes act as a physical barrier preventing penetration by more harmful microbes which could lead to infection (1). The normal body flora on the surfaces of the body, reduce the area available for pathogens to attach to, as well as acting as a competitor for suitable nutrients. The body also produces several antimicrobial substances that kill or break down bacteria. A specific example of a physical barrier is when the blood produces a clot to seal the wound to prevent microbes from entering when the skin has been cut. The second line of defence is also non-specific and involves the process of phagocytosis. A type of white blood cell, called phagocytes, send out pseudopodia to attack the pathogens. Digestive enzymes are then released which break down the harmful microbes (1). Conversely, specific immunity is when resistance is given to a particular foreign agent such as a virus or bacteria, known as antigens. These antigens work to attack the pathogen by causing specific cells to replicate and produce proteins to provide protection from the pathogen (2). Repeated exposure increases the effectiveness of specific immune responses and some diseases, like chickenpox, need only to be contracted once to give immunity for life. Vaccinations are also readily available for many common diseases which enable the individual to...
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