...Hull’s hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. In the first case, there is no room for intermediary cognitive processes between stimulus and response, outside the realm of simple associative learning. In the second case, there is lacking an explicit scientific means by which to objectively observe the theoretical cognitive mechanisms in question. However, E. C. Tolman was one of the first psychologists to suggest that intermediary cognitive processes could be deduced through the results of scientifically rigorous experimentation (Zentall, 2002). It is on this very basic proposition, that theoretical cognitive processes can be inferred by observing behavior, which most informs the developmental milestones in the formation of the cognitive perspective as a branch of psychology. Development of Cognitive Psychology The development of the cognitive approach as a mainstream psychological perspective is marked by four major milestones: 1) the shortfalls of the behaviorist perspective of psychology 2) the ability for abstract constructs to account for the aforementioned shortfalls 3) the bridging of abstract constructs with observable mechanisms through the medium of artificial intelligence and neuroscience 4) the realization that the representations and processes of cognition can be liken to the internal functioning of a computer. The behaviorism of the early 20th century could not account for many observable behaviors documented by psychologists of the time. For instance, the...
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...amongst B.F. Skinner’s cut-and-dry input²output relations and C.L. Hull’s hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. In the first case, there is limited access for intermediary cognitive processes among stimulus and response, independent from the domain of effortless associative learning. In the second case, there is lacking a definite scientific means by which to impartially observe the theoretical cognitive mechanisms at hand. Nonetheless, E. C. Tolman was one of the first psychologists to insinuate that intermediary cognitive processes could be determined through the results of scientifically meticulous experimentation. It is on this extremely complex proposal, that theoretical cognitive processes can be inferred by observing behavior, which most informs the developmental milestones in the formation of the cognitive perspective as a branch of psychology. Cognitive Psychology relates to developments, both past and present, in the investigation of the memory process, verbal communication, discernment, the ability to solve problems, and thinking in general. Essentially, cognitive psychology scrutinizes the ways in which individuals obtain and put into operation, data or information they have obtained from various sources. The discipline of cognitive psychology is directly interrelated to cognitive science and is inspired by fields of study such as environmental science and physics, among others. Cognitive...
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...Philosophy- the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Physiology- branch of biology that studies the functions and part of living organisms, including humans Wilhelm Wundt- founder of psychology, established first psychology research lab Edward Tichener- developed structuralism; emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences William James- established psychology in the US. Developed functionalism; emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences William James & students- G. Stanley Hall- received first ph.d in psych. Established first psych lab in the US. Founded the American Psychological Association Mary Whiton Calkins- first woman president of the APA Margaret Floy Washburn- first American woman to earn ph.d in psych. Second woman president of APA Francis C. Sumner- first African American to earn phd in psych. Created psych program that led in training African Americans. Sigmund Freud- developed psychoanalysis; Personality theory & form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior John B. Watson- developed behaviorism; study of observable behaviors Carl Rogers- developed humanistic psychology; emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction Contemporary Psych Biological perspective- studies psychical bases of human and animal behaviors neuroscience- study of the nervous system Psychodynamic...
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...scientific study of behavior and mental processes. B. The Influence of Philosophy and Phsiology – the earliest origins of psychology can be traced back several centuries to the writings of the great philosophers. C. Wihelm Wundt Founder of Psychology—use scientific method to study fundamental psychological processes. Founder of pshyc. German opened the 1st building for psychology in germany. D. Edward B. Titchener: Structuralism – Astablish the 1st major school of thought called structuralism. E. William James: Functionalism – school of functionalism adapt to environment stressed how we learned. F. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis – Most concept there of pshy. Father of psychonaly is study of unconice with sex and aggression. G. John B. Watson: Behaviorism – emerged as a dominating force. Emphasis on consciousness promoted by structuralism and functionalism. (Behaviorism – school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning) H. Carl Rogers: Humanistic Psychology – good self a steam tell them they can be anything. Study concent experience develop human potential humanism (Humanistic psychology – School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction). Contemporary Psychology A. Major Perspectives in Psychology 1. Biological – Biological psychologists study the physical...
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...Cognitive psychology was introduced when there were flaws found in the areas of behaviorism (Galotti, 2014). The field of behaviorism began moving their concerns towards observable behaviors instead of focusing on the mind (Galotti, 2014). Since this was occurring cognitive psychology was born. This aspect of psychology began emphasizing on how the mind thinks and functions (Galotti, 2014). For instance, cognitive psychology encompasses areas of learning, memory, attention, perception, reasoning, language, conceptual development, and decision making (Galotti, 2014). It is defined as the scientific study of mental processing (Galotti, 2014). Cognitive psychology concentrates on how an individual stores, processes, acquires, and interprets the world around them. And it also tries to classify certain behaviors that are presented through different characteristics (Willingham, 2007). Once this area of psychology was introduced it brought back the importance of studying the mind. In the next following sections they will cover the key milestones in the development of cognitive psychology and the importance of behavioral observation in this field. Key milestones in the development of cognitive psychology There were four key milestones that had a hand in developing cognitive psychology. The milestones were: neuroscience, information processing model, artificial intelligence, and the criticism of behaviorism (Carley, 2012). The criticism that behaviorism received was...
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...Wundt established the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879 at Leipzig University. Wundt introduced scientific methods into psychological research. The “Father of Modern Cognitive Psychology”; Ulric Neisser, was born in Kiel, Germany December 08, 1928. Neisser changed the path of psychology. He inspired a group of psychologist in the direction of a field named by his first book, Cognitive Psychology (1967). Cognitive psychology is the study of the mind and the way it works. It is the study of the mental processes, such as problem solving, perception, speaking, thinking, and remembering. It includes mental representations and the use of abstract hypotheses to find relationships between brain structures and their functions. To help us understand how cognitive theories grew into a psychological science, it is essential to understand what milestones assisted in the development of its establishment. One key milestone for the development of cognitive psychology is neuroscience. It can examine how the brain and nervous system regulates behaviors, it can also account for intelligent behavior through the use of abstract constructs, hypothetical representations, and processes (Whitaker, 2013). Neuroscientist also established absolute links between structures of the brain and functioning. Through neuroscience, cognitive psychologist use methods of localization in identifying brain areas that enable functioning. The research of neuroscientists enables the understanding...
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...proposed study 'Chinese culture on learning and the use of meta-cognitive language-learning strategies at an institute of vocational education in Hong Kong'. By Manfred Wu "I certify that this work is entirely my own and has not been accepted as part of a submission to another degree course" _________________________ Word Length: 5,964 Abstract This paper begins with a review of the positivist and interpretive paradigms. After the description of a proposed study on Chinese values on learning and use of meta-cognitive language-learning strategies (MCLLS), how the study emerges from the two paradigms is discussed. Discussions show that the aims of the study of gathering descriptive data and exploring relationships between the two variables as well as the use of survey method are more pertained to the positivist paradigm as it shares features with the paradigm including a high degree of control over responses, use of statistics both for descriptive and for determining relationships and researchers being detached by adopting the role of an objective and passive informant. Other aims of generating insights on the two selected concepts, collecting information from respondents' frame of reference, focusing on the whole institutional setting and the use of semi-structured interview are more pertained to the interpretive paradigm. It is because the design focuses on the subjective meanings of respondents, the reasons for observable behaviours...
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...Axia College Material Appendix B Complete the following chart. The first column shows the name of a research method used in psychology. In the second column, write a brief description of that research method. In the third column, provide a situation when this method could be applied. |Research Method |Description |Application | |Scientific method |The body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring |Scientific method is used to compare the | | |new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous |strongest brand of paper towel by absorbing | | |knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must |water on two different bands of paper towels | | |be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable |to compare the different type of paper | | |evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A |towels. The hypothesis is formed by examining| | |scientific method consists of the collection of data through |the observations carful and makes an educated| | |observation and experimentation, and the formulation and |guess as to what the outcome might...
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...perspectives represent fundamental assumptions that underlie the research questions and methods that are used in order to answer the questions of psychology. Most all perspectives define psychology as the discipline interested in studying human behavior and mental processes, but that covers a lot of ground and the causes of behavior and mental processes are not always clear. This outline will attempt to catalogue the major perspectives and give the reader a sense of the underlying assumptions, the philosophical foundations, the research methods, and the outcomes or practices that result from the efforts of researchers and practitioners. Let's just begin with a list of the perspectives and a short description. 1. Psychodynamic Perspective: Probably the approach that has been most popularly associated with the discipline of psychology for the past century is the psychodynamic, psychoanalytic perspective. Sigmund Freud, who was medically trained in neurology, developed a theory of personality that made the assumption that human motivation was propelled by conflicts between instinctual, mostly unconscious, psychological forces. He called these intrapsychic elements the id, ego and superego. (You know the drill) This psychodynamic theory caught on like wild fire and due to its explanatory power for human behavior, became very popular over the following century. Freud's therapeutic method, called psychoanalysis, was developed to identify the underlying conflicts between...
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...distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods, and how do they relate to scientific and humanistic approaches in geography? I n the previous chapter, we explained that the empirical part of scientific research involves systematically observing cases in order to record measurements of variables that reflect properties of those cases. Researchers analyze the resulting set of data (usually numbers) graphically, verbally, and mathematically in order to learn something about the properties of the cases. Data collection efforts do not generally go on continuously but are grouped into periods of activity focused on particular research issues or questions. Such a focused period of data collection and analysis is a study (in Chapter 7, we learn that there are two major categories of scientific studies, experimental and nonexperimental). In this chapter, we introduce some basic characteristics of data collection in geography, including the distinction between primary and secondary data sources, the five major types of data collection, and the distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods. 35 03-Montello-4862.qxd 1/30/2006 12:17 PM Page 36 36——AN INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY Primary and Secondary Data Sources One way to characterize data in geography concerns whether they were collected specifically for the purpose of a researcher’s particular study. If so, we call the data primary. An example would...
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...perspectives represent fundamental assumptions that underlie the research questions and methods that are used in order to answer the questions of psychology. Most all perspectives define psychology as the discipline interested in studying human behavior and mental processes, but that covers a lot of ground and the causes of behavior and mental processes are not always clear. This outline will attempt to catalogue the major perspectives and give the reader a sense of the underlying assumptions, the philosophical foundations, the research methods, and the outcomes or practices that result from the efforts of researchers and practitioners. Let's just begin with a list of the perspectives and a short description. 1. Psychodynamic Perspective: Probably the approach that has been most popularly associated with the discipline of psychology for the past century is the psychodynamic, psychoanalytic perspective. Sigmund Freud, who was medically trained in neurology, developed a theory of personality that made the assumption that human motivation was propelled by conflicts between instinctual, mostly unconscious, psychological forces. He called these intrapsychic elements the id, ego and superego. (You know the drill) This psychodynamic theory caught on like wild fire and due to its explanatory power for human behavior, became very popular over the following century. Freud's therapeutic method, called psychoanalysis, was developed to identify the underlying conflicts between...
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...explain why you chose the quote or quotes that you chose. (Note that most of the quotes implicitly refer to the knowledge of a single human being but many of them can be extended to apply to organizations.) ---- Oppapers.com ----- The relationship between organizational learning and organizational knowledge and the affect knowledge management has on both is at once undeveloped and immature-in its basis and orientation to organizations-as it is in another instance burgeoning and unknown. Carl Sagan the great physicist and astronomer was accustomed to saying about the universe as comprising “Billions and billions, and billions of stars”; well as much may be said of the field of knowledge management with respect to its breadth and depth. Studies and the assembled base of research captured in and by the sampling of articles this paper will use to support this discussion of these three daunting, yet weighty entry points give the assembled body of academe and student reason for pause as well as concern. Pause because just as the era of Sagan’s Astronomy exposed the viewing...
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...changes for example; they fell during war times but rose during economic depression or prosperity. Different societies had different suicide rates. Within a society, the rates varied constantly between social groups for example; Catholics had lower rates that Protestants. He identified the two social facts that determined suicide as social integration; the extent to which an individual feels a sense of belonging to a group and obligation to its members and moral integration; the extent to which an individual’s actions and desires are kept in check by society’s norms and values. Therefore, Durkheim concluded that these patterns were evidence that suicide rates couldn’t simply be the result of the motives of individuals. However, Durkheim’s study has been criticised for using unreliable and incomplete statistics. This was so because medical knowledge was limited in the 19th century and autopsies were rare. Similarly, most countries lacked the sophisticated modern administrative system needed to collect and complete reliable statistics on a...
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...Case Study: Janet Name College Case Study: Janet A case study is an in-depth analysis of a person, event, decision, period, project, policy, institution, or other system that is studied holistically by one or more methods. By gathering data and variety of sources and using these different methods, researchers can use scientific methods and perspectives to relate with various patterns and causes for behavior. In the field of psychology, case studies are widely known to help Psychologist’s and researchers with the assistance to help understand and overcome a person’s illness. While examining the “Case Study: Janet’, the use of psychology’s four goals and the modern perspectives were used to help determine the interpretation of the cause. Description Janet was a young girl that grew up in an abusive household that was beaten by her father as a part of a discipline process. Her father never explained why he used such drastic measures, so she grew up thinking that this was acceptable. She presumed that the only way to earn his love and respect was to do better. There was only one positive influence in her life; an aunt, who was rarely around because of the distance between them. Janet learned early to associate love with fear and trying with failure. As Janet grew older, she began to learn that her father might have been wrong. She began to see the regret coming from those actions, and soon realized that she had control. Janet started to guilt her father into...
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...focuses primarily on observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist that would later refine the behavioral perspective. Radical behaviorism includes operant conditioning where actions are strengthened or reinforced. For example I enjoy playing Basketball because it clears my mind, so I am more then likely going to play basketball more. The Humanistic Perspective is used to describe, predict and explain human behavior by focusing on how personality, behavior, and mental processes are influenced by an innate capacity for personal growth. It also pat attention to creativity, free will, and human potential. Humanistic Perspective is often called the “third force” it is the response to the limitation of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic and B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are two of the most famous founders of humanistic perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20 century. The Psychodynamic Perspective is how unconscious or conscious processes determine human behavior. Psychodynamics studies the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces. Therapist might use word association and symbols as tools in therapy sessions. The psychodynamic perspective was establish by Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud. Part 2: Research Methods Case study is a detailed examination of the experience of a single individual or group. Case studies can also be used...
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