...The immune system is the primary defense system in keeping out pathogens. A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. Chronic diseases often cannot be cured. “Any man who is intelligent, on considering that health is of the utmost value to human beings have the personal understanding necessary to help himself in diseases, and be able to understand and to judge what physicians say and what they administer to his body, being versed in each of these matters to a degree reasonable for a layman” (Hippocrates) Pathogens can infect unicellular organisms from out of the biological kingdoms. There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host. There are many ways diseases are caused by blood-borne pathogens. A needle stick injury, in jury from a sharp instrument contaminated with blood or body fluids and intimate contract are some ways that people are exposed to these pathogens (environmental pathogens are defined as microorganisms that normally spend a substantial part of their lifecycle outside human hosts but when introduced to humans cause disease with measureable frequency. They are carried in the water, soil, air, food and other parts of the environment and can affect almost every individual on the planet.) The key difference between environmental pathogens and other human pathogens is their ability to survive and thrive outside the host. Their widespread occurrence in the environment makes...
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...The body’s Army of Defenses Mary Brown Rasmussen College NU231/NUR2349 Professional Nursing 1 Instructor Mash 05/14/201 With every second of the day the Human body is waging a war against enemy forces that have been sent to defeat them. The hostile enemy army of bacteria, fungi and viruses swarm on our skin trying to siege the human body. However, our body’s recognition of these enemies rely on two intrinsic defense systems, they are the innate and the adaptive systems. These two systems work independent of each other and also rely on each other cooperatively in the defense of disease. This system of defense is what is called our immunity. If the immune system is operating effectively it will protect the body from foreign invaders vigorously and sometimes without regard to the good and bad cells. One system that is nonspecific to foreign substances is the innate system. The innate, sometimes called the natural immunity is the first line of defense for the body (Marieb, 2013). Skin barriers and mucosal bodies such as acidity of the skin, lysozyme found in salvia, mucus found in the respiratory track and defensins found in mucous membranes are all part of the innate immune system (Marieb, 2013). Internal innate systems include phagocytes and macrophages by killing and ingesting their prey with enzymes (Marieb, 2013). The innate system also includes the inflammatory response which prevents agents from spreading to adjacent tissues and promotes tissue...
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...In this essay I will be analysing micro organisms and disease. Firstly I will be defining micro organisms and then explaining the key features of the main categories of microorganisms. Followed by the roles of commensals and pathogens I will then go on to explain how micro organisms are transmitted and the routes of entry to and exit from the human body of micro organisms. I will also be explaining the logical sequence of events that occur from entry of a micro-organism to the body to the appearance of symptoms of a disease and then go onto discuss why not all infections lead to a disease. Finally I will explain a logical sequence the signs, symptoms and treatments of yellow fever which is an infectious disease. Micro organisms are living organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, viruses) which are too small to even be seen with the naked eye but visible under a microscope also named microbe. There are five types of living micro organisms these are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and algae. Microorganisms are widespread in nature and are beneficial to life, but some can cause serious harm. They can be divided into six major types: bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. The cells are described as prokaryotic because they lack a nucleus. They exist in four major shapes: bacillus (rod shape), coccus (spherical shape), spirilla (spiral shape), and vibrio (curved shape). Most bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall they divide...
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...Whooping Cough Two Pathogens That Cause Infectious Diseases Infectious diseases are illnesses are highly transmissible and are caused by pathogens. The pathogens live and multiply in the body of the host and they cause damage to the cells and lead to various complications depending on their target organs. The most common types of pathogens include bacteria, protozoa, fungi and Viruses. The modes of action when the pathogens get into the host organism are similar. They first multiply then start destroying different tissues and cells in the host organism. They may release toxins that make the host environment conducive for their survival. The toxins harm the cells of the host organism, thus leading to different illnesses. The illnesses caused are normally very infectious, and they may lead to epidemics. This paper will compare and contrast the pathogens causing whooping cough and zygomycosis. Causal pathogens Whooping cough and Zygomycosis are some of the infectious diseases caused by different pathogens. In whooping cough, the pathogen infects the respiratory system, causing severe coughing in the victims. It is caused by the bacteria Bordetella pertussis. Zygomycosis is a broad range of fungal infectious diseases that affect the face; particularly the nasal cavity, and the eyes as well as the skin. It is caused by fungi in the Mucorales and Entomophthorales (Vazquez Para 1). The pathogens causing whooping cough and Zygomycosis have several...
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...that drain into the trunks. The trunks drain into the subclavian veins. Lymphatic organs in the body include lymph nodes, thymus gland, the spleen, tonsils, lymphatic vessels, and Peyer' patches in the small intestines. In comparison to blood vessels, lymphatic vessels have all the three tunics found on blood vessels. However, large vessels have a vasa vasorum layer in addition to the three tunics found in other vessels. Like blood vessels, lymphatic vessels have many valves (that prevent back flow) and anastomoses. They are characteristically larger than blood vessels and on their walls are overlapping flaps that allow large proteins to get into circulation. Lymph nodes, are present along the lymphatic vessels and range in size from the size of a pin head to that of a lima bean. Examples of lymph nodes include the popliteal lymph nodes, the inguinal lymph node, the cubital, axillary, and cervical lymph nodes as shown in figure one below. Lymph nodes or glands mostly occur in clusters and drain various parts of the body depending on their location. For example, the axillary lymph nodes are located under the armpit and they drain the upper thorax and arm. The cervical lymph nodes drain the neck, teeth, nose and lips. The inguinal lymph nodes are found in the groin area and drain the legs and genitals as shown in figure one below. Figure 1: shows the human lymphatic system and the...
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...the Fungi Kingdom. It acts as a parasite on insects and causes White Muscardine disease. It is being used as an insecticide to control certain arthropod species [Boyd]. The article, “Does Elevated Body Ni Concentration Protect Insects Against Pathogens?” uses Beauveria bassiana as one of its main test tools in its experiment. The author of the article wanted to test to see if higher Nickel concentrations in an insect would protect them from pathogens. He did so by comparing the effects of different types of pathogens on two different species of insects, one with high Ni concentration and the other with low Ni concentration [Boyd]. Background Beauveria bassiana grows naturally in most soil around the Earth [Herrintgton]. It causes White Muscardine Disease in certain insects. When tiny spores from the fungus come in contact with an insect it will kill it from the inside out. It infects the insect from its skin, which is unlike many other fungi that have to be eaten to infect an insect [Herrington]. Once the spore has made contact with the body of an insect it secretes an enzyme that dissolves and kills the cuticle of the insect. Beauvericin, which is a toxin that weakens the insect’s immune system, is also produced [Herrington]. The fungus is now replicating within the insects body and is slowly killing it from the inside out. It feeds on the insect’s organs and bodily fluids. In approximately 3-5 days the insect will die, depending on the type of insect [Boyd]. After the host...
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...We are living in a sea of germs. They are in the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink and swim in. Many of the viruses are no longer bothering humans because humans have developed more advanced immune system to counter the teeming viruses that exist in the world. However, some brute viruses such as Variola Virus, causes smallpox, once was a threatening virus to the world. The virus was spread through the air and the smallpox infection resulted people in high fever, serve aches, scarring rashes or even death. Thus vaccines were introduced to prevent contagious disease, with the help of knowledge of human immune system. The human immune system is complex and it holds three different defense lines to prevent pathogens. When...
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...However, antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms and diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease ,avian influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome(SARS) have emerged. In the developing world successes such as the eradication of smallpox have been balanced or outweighed by the new plagues. Infectious diseases cause nearly 25% of all human deaths. Two billion people one-third of the world’s population are infected with tuberculosis (TB),500 million people catch malaria every year, and 200 million are infected with schistosomiasis. 39.5 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 4.3 million new HIV infections in 2006 (65% in sub-Saharan Africa). The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) hope to be achieved by 2015. These are: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, universal primary education, gender equality and empowerment of women, reduction in child mortality,improvement in maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS,malaria and other diseases, ensuring environment sustainability and developing global partnership for development. DEFINITION INFECTION An infection is the entry and multiplication of an infections agent in the tissue of host. lf the infectious agent fails to cause injury to cells or tissue, then infection is asymptomatic. INFECTIOUS DISEASE An infectious disease is any change from a state of health in a part or all of the host body is not capable of carrying on its normal functions due to the presence...
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...the daily burden of diseases on the planet daily. WHO puts the contribution of sanitation, poor hygiene, and unsafe water contribution to waterborne diseases at 88% (Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2011). Water Bourne diseases result to more than 1.8million deaths every year (Lee, 2008). A Waterborne disease terms any diseases whose transmission occurs through pathogens present in contaminated water. These diseases are particularly rampant in the third world. Waterborne diseases are responsible for the death of one out of every five deaths under the age of five reported on the planet. The third world countries lack the sophisticated mechanisms of treating water for human use. In third world countries, accessing water is not always possible let alone accessing clean water. Developed nations use systems that filter and chlorinate drinking water eliminating pathogens. This explains why diseases like typhoid, dysentery, and cholera only run rampant in the third world. Apart from the lack of proper sanitation systems, third world nations exhibit very low levels of human development indices. Human development indices factor in elements such as education and health care. Lack of an adequate education makes third world citizens to live in oblivion in regards to waterborne diseases. Despite the discovery of waterborne diseases and their cure...
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...What causes humans to become ill? Humans can get ill a variety of different ways, anything we eat or come into contact with may cause illness in a human. In this essay I will outline different potential illnesses that a human may suffer with. When a human comes into contact with something that causes an abnormal immune response we call it an allergy. When allergy-prone person initially comes into contact with an allergen their B-cells produce IgE antibody, this antibody produced binds to mast cells which are found throughout the body. The second contact with this allergen, the mast cells with IgE present produces histamine which then lead to allergy symptoms such as running nose, sneezing and watery eyes. There are millions of types of different bacteria, some good and some bad called pathogens, which can make a human ill. When a pathogen enters the body it attaches to cells, potentially damaging the cells and releases its toxins. The bodies white blood cells can destroy the pathogens however while the body destroys the pathogens it may also damage the surrounding tissue. In most cases antibiotics can be taken to kill the bacteria, it does this by stopping their growth or killing them it does this by preventing the bacteria from building up a cell wall. An example of a bacteria is acne, acne is caused by bacteria growing near or in the sebaceous glands in the skin which causes inflammation and white pus. Viruses also enter the body and attach to a host using it to reproduce...
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...foot (see Dermatophyte) is a common contagious fungal infection of the skin that causes scaling, flaking, and itch of affected areas. Symptoms are caused by fungi such as Epidermophyton floccosum or fungi of the Trichophyton genus such asTrichophyton rubrum[1] or Trichophyton mentagrophytes.[2] This condition is also known as ringworm of the foot,[3] tinea pedis,[3] tinea pedum,[4] and moccasin foot[5]). The disease is typically transmitted in moist communal areas where people walk barefoot, such as showers or bathhouses, and requires a warm moist environment, (e.g., the inside of a shoe) to incubate. The condition typically affects the feet, but may infect or spread to other areas of the body such as the groin and tends to spread to areas of skin that are kept hot and moist, such as with insulation, body heat, and sweat. The fungal agents responsible for infection may be picked up by walking barefoot in an infected area or using an infected towel. Infection can be prevented by limiting the use of occlusive footwear and remaining barefoot.[6] Globally, it affects about 15% of the population Bacteria (i/bækˈtɪəriə/; singular: bacterium) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a fewmicrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most habitats on the planet. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs,radioactive waste,[2] and...
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...safe for their child anymore. With that, the debate has been strung. While people are able to make their judgement based on facts and others’ opinions, some who, either support or oppose vaccines, may not quite understand why vaccinations are administered or what exactly happens to your body when they are injected. What is the underlying biological process happening in the body when administered vaccines? When a pathogen, such as a harmful bacterium or virus, infects the body for the first time, the immune system will quickly recognize it as an “invader” based on molecular features specific to the pathogen. In all simplicity, these bacteria fighting compounds are known as antigens. In response to these antigens, the body produces molecules called antibodies that enable our immune system to track down and kill the pathogen.Vaccines teach the body to recognize a pathogen. Specifically, vaccines contain the same antigens as pathogens, in a weakened or dead form, so that the body can learn what the pathogen looks like and produce antibodies in a safe and comparatively controlled manner. Thus, when the body encounters the real pathogen, it is already trained and prepared to eliminate the pathogen before it can do any damage. With the recent knowledge gained, the sides of this newly found controversy will be introduced, the optimists and the pessimists. Throughout all the homo sapiens that walk the face of the earth, the fear of becoming ill bursted through the cracks many years...
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...The sources of infection include Bacteria, Viruses and Fungi, as these microorganisms which cause disease, have the ability to reproduce themselves within the body. These microorganisms produce harmful toxins that damage cell tissues. Routes Of Transmission It can be spread through person to person contact, which is known as ‘Direct Contact Transmission’ through an infected person, which is known as human reservoirs that are not affected by it, spreading it by coughing or sneezing which when inhaled in, are infected. ‘Indirect Transmission’ is transmission from contaminated surfaces or vectors for example, animals and insects. It may also be transmitted through eating contaminated food which contains bacteria. It can also be transmitted by...
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...Vaccines have double the human life expectancy for over 150 years and have eradicated diseases like smallpox and soon polio could be the next disease to be eradicated from the world. The concept of vaccines has existed around the world for hundreds of years. One of the first methods of vaccinations was known as, variolation (Nazarko, 2013). Variolation was popular in China as well as other countries in the Middle East during the 10th century. Asians and Middle Eastern people collected samples of dry tissues from the scabs of smallpox survivors and would put it into healthy people’s bodies. The process of variolation consisted of making a wound on a person’s arm and inserting the dry tissues scabs in the wound to contract the virus and obtain...
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...Microscopic studies of the human body have found that microbial cells greatly outnumber somatic cells with National Institutes of Health estimating the figure to be around 90%; these either being bacterial, fungal or otherwise non-human. Even though DNA sequencing techniques have allowed scientists to analyse the structures components and functions of some of these normal microbiota, a large fraction of them still remain unstudied and so therefore we have not yet understood the full extent as to the influence that they have on our physiology and development thus how effective our immunity and nutrition is. Some of these microorganisms, known as microbiomes live in the body in areas covered by epithelial cells and exposed to the external environment (the skin, oral cavity respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and the genitourinary system); these commensal microorganisms (normal microflora) such as bacteria, yeast and some virus co-evolved with their hosts, meaning they don’t cause any harm and are also beneficial. Commensal bacteria are important as they help us digest food, nutrient metabolism, tissue development as well as maintain a good mucosal immune system to prevent the colonization of bacterial pathogens in order to protect us from diseases. A variety of factors such as health, age, diet, lifestyle and hormonal state mean the numbers and types of these microorganisms present in and on the body continuously change and may disrupt the balance of heterogeneous organisms...
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