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Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics© Psychonomic Society, Inc. 201210.3758/s13414-012-0370-4
Contextual influences of dimension, speed, and direction of motion on subjective time perception
Spencer R. Kline1 and Catherine L. Reed1
(1)
Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, 850 Columbia Avenue, Claremont, CA 81711, USA

Catherine L. Reed
Email: clreed@cmc.edu
Published online: 14 September 2012
Abstract
Research has indicated that the direction of motion and the speed of motion can influence the subjective estimates of temporal duration of two-dimensional (2-D) stimuli expanding and contracting within the picture plane. In this study, we investigated whether the contextual cues of stimulus/movement-plane dimensionality (2-D stimuli with implied movement in the picture plane or depth-rendered “3-D” stimuli with implied movement in the depth plane) influence and interact with speed and implied movement direction during interval estimation. Participants viewed a series of standard stimulus durations followed by a test stimulus duration and determined whether the test and standard durations differed. The results indicated that moving stimuli were overestimated relative to stationary stimuli, regardless of the direction of motion or dimensionality. Also, faster-moving stimuli were overestimated relative to slower-moving stimuli. Importantly, an interaction between movement direction and dimensional cues indicated that the loom/recede distinction occurs for 2-D but not for 3-D stimuli. It is possible that the loom/recede distinction for the 2-D condition may be an artifact arising from reduced or from a lack of perceived motion in 2-D “recede” conditions, rather than a specific overestimation for looming stimuli.
Keywords
Time perception Subjective interval estimation Implied motion Visual illusion Looming Receding
In this study, we investigated whether the contextual cues of movement direction, speed, and dimensionality interact to influence our perception of temporal intervals. Time perception depends on a variety of different situational factors (Angrilli, Cherubini, & Manfredini, 1997; Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007; Lewis & Miall, 2003; Wearden & Penton-Voak, 1995; Zakay & Block, 2004). The physical characteristics of stimuli (e.g., the intensity of light or sounds; Fraisse, 1984), emotional valence (Droit-Volet & Gil, 2009), and attentional load (Block & Zakay, 1997), as well as pharmacological manipulations in animals (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Meck,1996; Penney, Holder, & Meck, 1996), influence the estimation of duration. Furthermore, manipulations of attention, arousal, and cognitive-processing demand have been shown to also affect perceived interval duration. Highly arousing stimuli are often perceived as being longer than neutral stimuli (Burle & Casini,2001; Droit-Volet & Wearden 2002; Ortega, Lopez, & Church, 2009), and estimates made while performing a concurrent task are shorter than estimates made in the absence of such extra cognitive load (Brown, 1997; Droit-Volet, 2003). Also, the overestimation of the duration of a deviant stimulus within a stream of standard events has been attributed to an increase in the attention directed to the deviant stimulus (New & Scholl,2009; Tse, Intriligator, Rivest, & Cavanagh, 2004; van Wassenhove, Buonomano, Shimojo, & Shams, 2008); to coding efficiency, in which the encoding of a deviant stimulus dilates experienced duration (Eagleman & Pariyadath, 2009); and to the intrinsic dynamics of the stimulus (Kanai, Paffen, Hogendoorn, & Verstraten,2006; New & Scholl, 2009).
Movement provides one of the most robust contextual influences on perceived interval duration (Brown, 1995; Roelofs & Zeeman, 1951–1952; Tayama, Nakamura, & Aiba, 1987). Brown (1995) found that when participants were asked to reproduce the durations of moving and stationary stimuli, the perceived duration of moving stimuli was longer than that of stationary stimuli. Furthermore, increasing the speed of movement led to further interval dilation: Fast-moving stimuli elicited longer reproductions than did slow-moving stimuli. For instance, Mate, Pires, Campoy, and Estaun (2009) used a constant-stimulus method and compared slow- and fast-moving stimuli with stationary stimuli. They found that not only did moving stimuli produce greater temporal overestimation than did stationary stimuli, but also that faster stimuli produced greater overestimations than did slower stimuli.
Perceived interval duration is influenced not only by movement per se, but also by the direction of motion. Looming signals of two-dimensional (2-D) stimuli (i.e., discs that expand in diameter) are associated with subjective time dilation, whereas receding signals (i.e., discs that contract in size) are not (New & Scholl,2009; van Wassenhove et al., 2008; Wittmann, van Wassenhove, Craig, & Paulus, 2010). For example, Wittmann et al. presented participants with trials consisting of three successive stationary stimuli at a standard duration, followed by a test stimulus that appeared to loom, recede, or remain stationary, followed by a standard stimulus. Participants then indicated whether the duration of the test stimulus was longer or shorter than the duration of the standard stimuli. The participants indicated that the test stimuli were “longer” a higher percentage of the time when the stimuli loomed than when they receded or remained stationary. No difference emerged between the percentages of “longer” responses for test stimuli that receded or remained stationary. This occurred even though the degrees of “change” associated with both looming and receding stimuli were identical. These observations suggest that looming stimuli are particularly salient events (Yantis & Egeth, 1999) and that they draw attention as compared to other stimuli (Franconeri, Hollingworth, & Simons, 2005). Looming signals are an intrinsic threat cue for the organism (Abrams & Christ, 2005; Droit-Volet & Gil, 2009; Schiff et al., 1962) and may constitute a natural self-referential stimulus (Northoff, Heinzel, de Greck, Bermpohl, Dobrowolny, & Panksepp, 2006).
Several models of interval perception have been proposed to account for motion speed and direction findings. The memory trace model (Ornstein, 1969) or contextual change model (CCM) proposes that contextual changes (e.g., alternation of an individual’s emotional state or of stimulus complexity, changes occurring in a stimulus’s presentation, or other variations that break an interval into discrete segments) lead to a dilation of perceived interval duration, because the changes create a higher number of discrete memory traces available for retrieval (Block, 1982; Zakay & Block, 2004). The perceived duration of moving versus stationary stimuli may be overestimated because moving stimuli lead to more changes and more discrete memory traces (Poynter, 1989). Likewise, faster stimuli may be overestimated more than slower stimuli because they move a greater distance over a comparable interval than do slower stimuli, resulting in a greater degree of change. However, the CCM does not account for dilation differences for looming and receding stimuli.
An alternative temporal estimation model, the quick response model (QRM; Droit-Volet & Gil, 2009), can account for direction differences in temporal estimation. Here, the dilation of perceived interval length serves to facilitate faster decision-making. This model is closely aligned with models predicting that increased arousal and attentional capture will elicit interval overestimation. Events that elicit arousal and attentional capture often also require a quick response (Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007; Lejeune, 1998). More controversially, the model suggests that perceived slowing of an event provides an individual with more subjective time in which to engage an effective behavioral response (Meck, 1996). Movement is an important cue for agency (Abrams & Christ, 2005; Czeisler et al., 1999): A moving object is likely to be alive and often requires an immediate response from the observer. Furthermore, looming stimuli would be overestimated to a greater extent than receding stimuli, because only approaching forces an observer to prepare a fast and appropriate response for interaction. In the QRM, the overestimation of moving, and especially of looming, stimuli would increase the efficiency of decision-making through attention and arousal when faced with potential threat.
To date, little research has addressed how the speed of expansion/contraction influences and interacts with perceived interval length. In studies investigating the effect of looming and receding motion, the stimuli expanded or contracted to the same degree, regardless of the test interval length. This ensured that the degree of expansion or contraction could not be used as a proxy for elapsed time. However, by keeping the degree of expansion or contraction constant, stimuli expanding or contracting over a shorter interval necessarily change size at a quicker rate than do stimuli that expand or contract over a longer interval. Since longer stimuli are also slower, it is difficult to determine whether the speed of expansion or contraction influences the perception of interval length.
In addition, studies have not investigated whether the dimensionality of the stimuli and of the movement plane used to simulate looming and receding motion has an effect on perceived interval length. In the experiments cited above, looming and receding motion was represented using 2-D discs that expanded/contracted in size in the picture plane. However, expansion/contraction of discs in the picture plane may be perceived differently from that of depth-rendered balls in the depth plane (3-D). Stimuli that appear to move in depth may possess more ecological validity and may more effectively mimic real motion (Abrams & Christ, 2005). Abrams and Christ found that receding stimuli possessing stereoscopic cues correlated with response speed, but that receding 2-D stimuli did not. An open question is whether the loom/recede distinction for the perception of time may disappear with the addition of depth cues indicative of motion through the depth plane or third dimension.
In this study, we investigated whether the variation of contextual cues—speed, movement direction, and depth—influences and interacts with the subjective perception of interval. We modified a paradigm developed by Wittmann et al. (2010) in which participants compared the duration of a test stimulus with the durations of a series of standard stimuli. We expected to replicate the findings of Wittmann et al. for 2-D stimuli—that is, looming stimuli would be perceived as being longer than receding stimuli of similar durations. However, in addition to the direction of motion, we predicted that the speed of implied movement and the dimensionality (i.e., simulated movement in the picture plane vs. the depth plane) of the stimuli would also influence subjective interval durations and would interact with the direction of motion.
Method
Participants
A group of 19 undergraduates (nine males, ten females; mean age = 19.4 years) participated for course credit in lower-level psychology courses.
Stimuli
Standard and 2-D stimuli were constructed so as to follow Wittmann et al. (2010). In all conditions, the standard-duration stimuli were represented using a solid black circle 3.5 cm in diameter. Stationary test stimuli were represented using a solid yellow circle with a 3.5-cm diameter. Picture-plane (2-D) looming motion was simulated by presenting a series of solid yellow circles with successively larger diameters. However, to keep the speed of stimulus motion constant within a block, the degree to which the circles’ diameters expanded depended on the length of the test interval. For the longest of the five test intervals in a given block, the diameter of the circle expanded from 2 to 5 cm. For the shortest test intervals in a given block, the diameters expanded from 2.6 to 4 cm. Receding stimuli were identical to the looming stimuli, except that the order of presentation was reversed.
Depth-plane (3-D) looming motion was simulated by presenting a series of solid yellow depth-rendered balls with successively larger diameters. The extent of diameter expansion was identical to the extent for 2-D looming stimuli. For looming stimuli, as the ball expanded in size, the center of the solid yellow ball moved along a linear perspective trajectory in order to mimic stereoscopic cues indicative of 3-D motion. Receding stimuli were identical to the 3-D looming stimuli, except that the order of presentation was reversed.
Procedure
The procedure was modeled after that of Wittmann et al. (2010). Figure 1 illustrates the stimuli and the procedure. Participants were tested individually and sat approximately 60 cm in front of a 17-in. monitor. Each trial consisted of five images (Fig. 1). The first, second, third, and fifth images were stationary black stimuli presented for a standard duration. As in New and Scholl (2009), the standard duration was 900 ms in the fast blocks and 1,350 ms in the slow blocks. The fourth image was always a yellow stimulus presented for a test duration. The interval in-between the stimuli varied randomly from 1,000 to 2,000 ms in order to reduce temporal markers. After the fifth image, participants pressed the “l” key on the keyboard to indicate that they had perceived the test stimulus duration to be longer than the standard stimulus duration, or the “s” key if they had perceived the standard stimulus to be shorter than the test stimulus.

Fig. 1
Stimuli and experimental procedure. Participants viewed three successive black stimuli of a standard duration, followed by a yellow test stimulus and a final black standard-duration stimulus. The participants then indicated whether the perceived duration of the test stimulus was longer or shorter than the test stimuli. The 2-D stimuli were animations of expanding or contracting discs in the picture plane. The “3-D” stimuli were animations of depth-rendered balls expanding or contracting along linear perspective lines, in order to mimic motion in the depth plane
Each participant completed four blocks of trials presented in a random order: 2-D fast, 2-D slow, 3-D fast, and 3-D slow. Within each block, the test stimuli were presented in the three different movement direction conditions—loom, recede, and stationary—at five different intervals. The fast-block intervals were 600, 700, 800, 900, and 1,000 ms, and the slow-block intervals were 900, 1,050, 1,200, 1,350, and 1,500 ms. For both the fast and slow blocks, three of the test durations were shorter than the standard duration, one was equal to the standard duration, and one was longer than the test duration. The test durations were shorter, on average, than the standard durations because test stimuli are often overestimated (New & Scholl, 2009). Although this may have affected the distribution of responses, the effect would be constant across conditions.
The fast and slow blocks differed in the speeds of presentation of the same image sequence; the average interval length in the fast blocks was 50 % shorter than in the slow blocks. Thus, the expansion/contraction of looming and receding stimuli simulated in the fast blocks appeared to be 50 % faster than in the slow blocks. Each trial condition was repeated twice within a block, and the trials were presented randomly. In total, 30 trials were presented per block, for a total of 120 trials overall. The entire experiment took 35 min to complete.
Results
For each participant and condition, the proportion of “long” responses was calculated. Figure 2 illustrates the mean proportions of “long” responses across test durations for each condition. Psychometric functions were fit for each participant (see Mate et al., 2009). Logit transformation was applied on the proportions of “long” answers (p), so that logit(p) = ln[p / (1 – p)] = α + βX, where X is the duration of the test stimulus. The point of subjective equality (PSE) defined by the value of the stimulus for a probability of .5 was also estimated (PSE = –β/α). The PSE value represents the duration of the test stimulus that the participant perceives as being equal to the duration of the standard stimulus. Two participants’ data could not be adequately modeled and were removed from subsequent analyses.

Fig. 2
Psychometric functions for fast and slow 2-D and depth-rendered “3-D” stimuli in the loom, recede, and stationary conditions. Mean proportions of “long” responses are plotted across test stimulus durations
To be able to compare the fast and slow speed conditions, we calculated difference scores between each PSE and the relevant standard value, with positive values representing temporal overestimation. We submitted these difference scores to a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the factors Dimensionality (2-D, 3-D), Speed (slow, fast), and Direction (loom, recede, stationary) (Fig. 3). Significant main effects were found for speed [F(1, 16) = 26.26, p < .0001, η 2 = .99] and direction [F(2, 32) = 16.69, p < .0001, η 2 = .98], but not for dimensionality [F(1, 16) < 1, η 2 = .06]. Faster stimuli (mean = 0.18, SE = 0.02) were overestimated to a greater extent than slower stimuli (mean = 0.06, SE = 0.02), and moving stimuli were overestimated to a greater extent than stationary stimuli. Specifically, post-hoc comparisons showed significant differences between stationary and looming [2-D slow, t(1, 16) = 4.32, p = .001; 3-D slow, t(1, 16) = 5.49, p < .0001; 3-D fast, t(1, 16) = 3.79, p = .002] as well as receding [2-D slow, t(1, 16) = 2.72, p = .015; 3-D slow, t(1, 16) = 4.12, p < .001; 3-D fast, t(1, 16) = 3.15, p = .006] stimuli, with the exception of the 2-D fast recede condition [t(1, 16) = 1.64, p = .164].

Fig. 3
Difference scores (i.e., standard duration – PSE) for fast and slow 2-D and depth-rendered “3-D” stimuli in the loom, recede, and stationary conditions. Positive values indicate overestimation
Notably, a significant Dimensionality × Direction interaction was observed [F(2, 32) = 4.29, p = .022, η 2 = .71]: 2-D but not 3-D stimuli showed significant differences between the loom and recede conditions. Post-hoc analyses of the 2-D stimuli confirmed a significant loom versus recede difference [F(1, 16) = 5.76, p = .029, η 2 = .61], indicating that looming stimuli (mean = 0.21, SE = 0.03) elicited greater overestimation than did receding stimuli (mean = 0.17, SE = 0.03). However, 3-D stimuli did not show a loom (mean = 0.20, SE = 0.03) versus recede (mean = 0.22, SE = 0.04) direction distinction [F(1, 16) < 1, η 2 = .07].
Finally, we conducted post-hoc comparisons to examine whether the degrees of overestimation differed for 2-D versus 3-D stimuli for the different movement directions. We found no difference in temporal estimation between 2-D and 3-D stationary stimuli [fast, t(1, 16) = 2.08, p = .06; slow, t(1, 16) = –1.16, p = .28], indicating similar processing for discs and depth-rendered balls. The 2-D stimuli did elicit greater overestimation than 3-D stimuli for fast-moving looming stimuli [fast, t(1, 16) = 2.42, p = .028], but not for slow-moving stimuli [t(1, 16) = –1.16, p = .27]. In contrast, 3-D stimuli tended to produce greater overestimation than 2-D stimuli for receding stimuli, but this difference was only significant for the slow-moving stimuli [fast, t(1, 16) = 1.04, p = .312; slow, t(1, 16) = 2.42, p = .028].
A Dimensionality × Speed interaction was also observed [F(1, 16) = 6.95, p = .018, η 2 = 0.70]. Speed had a greater effect for 2-D stimuli (fast = 0.21, SE = 0.03; slow = 0.02, SE = 0.03) than for 3-D stimuli (fast = 0.15,SE = 0.03; slow = 0.10, SE = 0.03). The Speed × Direction [F(2, 32) < 1, η 2 = .11] and three-way [F(2, 32) = 1.09, p = .40, η 2 = .22] interactions were not significant.
Discussion
The results of this study add to a growing body of research indicating that specific contextual factors influence our perception of time. Specifically, we examined the influence and interaction of stimulus/movement dimensionality, movement direction, and movement speed on estimates of interval duration. As a novel result of this study, we established the interaction of stimulus dimensionality with movement direction and speed. Using a paradigm developed by Wittmann et al. (2010), we compared estimates of temporal duration using two-dimensional stimuli with picture-plane-simulated movement (2-D) and using depth-rendered stimuli with depth-plane-simulated movement (3-D). Consistent with previous studies, we found an influence of simulated motion on the perception of time. The durations of moving stimuli were overestimated as compared to those of stationary stimuli. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Brown, 1995), participants were more likely to indicate that the test stimulus duration was longer than the standard duration (i.e., temporal overestimation) if the test stimuli simulated motion than if the test stimuli remained stationary.
Speed of movement also influenced perceived interval duration: Stimuli that expanded or contracted at a faster rate elicited a greater degree of overestimation when compared with similar stimuli that moved at a slower speed. However, speed also interacted with stimulus dimensionality. For the fast speed, 2-D stimuli were overestimated more than 3-D stimuli, especially for the loom direction, whereas for the slow speed, 3-D stimuli were overestimated more than 2-D stimuli, especially in the recede direction. Since the fast and slow stimuli moved comparable distances, the CCM would have difficulty explaining the overestimation of faster-moving stimuli. Conversely, speed differences can be explained by the QRM, as a fast-moving object requires a quicker response than does a slow-moving object, but this model would have more difficulty explaining the interaction.
Nonetheless, our most interesting finding was an interaction between movement and stimulus dimensionality. Previous research had shown that looming stimuli elicited dilation in perceived interval length but that receding stimuli did not (New & Scholl, 2009; van Wassenhove et al., 2008; Wittmann et al., 2010). However, this previous research only simulated motion using 2-D stimuli. In our study, simulated depth-plane motion (nonstereoscopic 3-D) elicited dilation in perceived interval length in both the loom and recede conditions, but this loom/recede distinction for the perception of time only occurred for 2-D, and not for 3-D, simulated motion.
One explanation for the loom/recede difference between 2-D and 3-D stimuli relates to the perception of 2-D receding motion. In this study, the 2-D receding stimuli were contracting discs whose centers did not change location. An interpretation of the differing temporal perceptions of 2-D looming and receding stimuli is that only 2-D looming stimuli, and not the 2-D receding stimuli, were perceived as moving; it is possible that the observed difference in the literature between 2-D looming and receding stimuli may result from 2-D receding stimuli being perceived as stationary and 2-D looming stimuli being perceived as moving. Since motion tends to universally elicit overestimation, the overestimation of 2-D looming stimuli observed in previous studies could merely be an artifact of simulating motion in 2-D.
If this is the case, and 2-D receding objects are not actually perceived as moving, the CCM can adequately account for the difference between looming and receding motion. In the context of CCM, if 2-D receding objects are not perceived as moving, they would possess a lower total number of changes as compared to 2-D looming objects, producing a shorter perceived duration. However, comparisons of time estimation between receding and stationary stimuli suggest that receding motion is perceived to some extent in slower-moving, if not in faster-moving, 2-D stimuli.
Also, these results appear to contradict the QRM model. One would expect that a 3-D looming object would capture as much (if not more) attention, be as arousing, and require an equally urgent response as a 2-D looming object, because 3-D images possess more ecological validity than do 2-D images. Nonetheless, the present results can be reconciled with the QRM. In our ancestral context, human beings were not uniformly prey, but also frequently predators (Abrams & Christ, 2005). A receding object might be indicative of a fleeing animal, and a slowed perception of time when presented with a receding object might aid in effective hunting. This hypothesis could be tested in future experiments using objects that not only move toward and away from participants, but also objects that move to the left and right. Given that movement generally represents an important cue of agency, it would be reasonable to assume that the body should respond to all types of motion. Since the consequences for not responding to a potentially threatening animal are greater than the repercussions associated with responding when no threat exists, evolutionary theory would argue that humans should possess a response bias (Öhman, 1997). In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that time perception can be influenced by a variety of interacting contextual cues, and that models of temporal estimation need to provide mechanisms to account for changing contextual conditions.
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...Why are the perceptions you have of your skills usually different from the perceptions that others have of your skills Why Do Differences in Perception Occur? The way you sense the world—the way you see, hear, smell, touch, and taste—is subjective, uniquely your own. Nobody else sees the world the way you do, and nobody experiences events exactly as you do. The uniqueness of human experience is based largely on differences in perception—“the process of becoming aware of objects and events from the senses” (DeVito, 1986) Perception is subjective, active, and creative. Active perception means that your mind selects, organizes, and interprets that which you sense. So each person is a different video camera, and each person aims the camera at different things; each person’s lens is different; each person sees different colours; and each person’s audio picks up different sounds. Perception is subjective in that you interpret what you sense; you make it your own, and you add to and subtract from what you see, hear, smell, and touch. Subjective perception is your uniquely constructed meaning attributed to sensed stimuli. So, why do differences in perception occur? Differences in perception may be the result of physiological factors, people’s past experiences and roles, their cultures and co-cultures, and their present feelings and circumstances. Physiological Factors You are not physiologically identical to anyone else. People differ from each other in sex, height...

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Perception

...GERARDO PEREZ-GARCIA 20120415 Y33-41-8925 DEP2000 REACTION PAPER WHAT IS PERCEPTION? Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment. Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent. When it comes down to our understanding of the world it is ultimately the result of our sensual means of perception. In other terms, can we really trust the truth, or anything that we know of scientifically? What does it mean to know something is true and also why it is important to distinguish between what you know and do not or cannot know? It is very difficult to be able to believe everything you hear, unless you experience it for yourself. Let’s say that perception is like viewing through goggles. If the tint of the goggles is green, the world appears green; if it’s black the world too becomes black. You want to see poverty, you...

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Perception

...1 Sensory Perception 2 Sensory Perceptions Sensory data is an exploration of collected abilities formed through the senses of observation throughout a person’s life span. The ability to analyze and categorize images, sounds, tastes and touch sparks the likes and dislikes of gathered information. In other words, accuracy and inaccuracy takes form in what a person perceive about the collected data in that moment. Even though, perceptions of information can change at any given time, there is the ability to memorize certain behaviors and information. Furthermore, one simple reason is because as a person evolves, senses are mature enough to form decision based on learned, environmental data Accuracy of sensory information is a perception of a person’s belief pattern. For example, how a person view his or her religion as being the accurate path to the heavens or God. As mentioned before, often than not what a person believes to be accurate is their reality to learned information. However, there are no advances for achieving the right conclusion on any situation but there are derived ambitions to reach desired results. Should a person only perceive their conclusion of information to known accuracy? Most likely not because there are alternatives and differences of gathered data to reach a conclusion. Three reasons for believing in the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information are not limited to 1.) Environmental cues, meaning the cultural views and environment that we have...

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Perceptions

...Perceptions “Perception is the result of the processes of selection, organization, and interpretation of information collected through the senses. Perception involves using what one sees, hears, tastes, smells, and feels to derive meaning from the environment and experiences. Whether done consciously or unconsciously, perception is a fundamental component of communication” (Alberts, 2009). When I reviewed the assignment, I immediately starting going through the list of people I could ask to answer the interview questions for me, this caused a little anxiety because I was already thinking of what certain people would say. Ultimately, I asked my husband. I chose him because he could evaluate from both a personal and professional viewpoint. Interview As we got started with the interview, I was anxious and I think my husband was apprehensive also. I think he was worried how I would react to his answers, which is understandable. I assured him that I was very open to this process and I truly valued his responses and input. The interview was going very smoothly until we reached question number four, which was “allow others to finish speaking”. When I asked this one, he hesitated and I could tell from his body language he wanted to say something more. We discussed the question and ultimately he told me that I do not always allow people, him, to finish talking before I jump in. He is correct; sometimes it is difficult for me to let someone finish their thought. This...

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Perception

...Perception 1. Describe Jim’s self-concept. Jim is using a personal construct, or mental yardstick, to measure his intelligence and responsibility when he is discussing how he is performing in school (Wood, 2012). He compares himself to his father by claiming his father is brilliant and did not have any trouble in school versus himself who is struggling to pull C’s. Jim feels that no matter how hard he tries he will never be an A student because he is using a self-servicing bias that college is more difficult than when his father went to college and he has no control of the difficulty (Wood, 2012). Jim is attributing his grades to external forces, such as more difficult material, and believes that no matter how much studying he will not receive better grades. 2. Explain, using examples from the video and course concepts, how Jim’s self-concept impacted his interaction with his father. Was it positive or negative? Jim’s self-concept had a negative impact on his interaction with his father. Jim states that he does not know how to convince his parents that he is doing everything that he can do. Wood (2012) explains that perceiving another person as domineering can create a feeling of insecurity in ability to communicate. Jim could attribute his parent’s concern that he is spending too much time with friends and not enough time studying as domineering and may not feel comfortable explaining that he is doing the best that he can. Jim is using self-servicing bias in his communication...

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Perception

...Perception affects communication because people perceive things that are being said how they want to perceive it. One person can take things being said in a different way than how someone else takes it. If things are taken the wrong way, communication can get angry or hurtful. According to Robbins, perception can be defined as ‘a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment’ (2004, p. 132). Perception is not necessarily based on reality, but is merely a perspective from a particular individual’s view of a situation. In dealing with the concept of organisational behaviour, perception becomes important because ‘people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself; the world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important’ (Robbins et al 2004, p.132). Perception affects our working relationships in many ways relating to the factors of organisational behaviour, such as: individual, group or structure. For example, based on the situation, perceiver and target we may have the perception that the people we are working with are no good at their job, and therefore we may tend to avoid working with them, in fear of being held responsible for their mistakes, and in doing so, affecting our working relationship with our team members, and ultimately, the effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation. Alternatively, it may affect the group within the organisation...

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Perception

...Perception is a very powerful thing many people rely heavily on other people’s perceptions of them. I myself rely on the fact that people find me to be knowledgeable as well as someone that is easy to talk to in order to do my job well. This paper will help me to understand how perception works through doing an analysis of what three observers declared were their perceptions of a photograph. In this paper, I will explain the steps of the perception process; as well as provide descriptions of my observers as well as explanations as to how their backgrounds may have affected their perceptions. Finally I will look into my observer’s perceptions by analyzing their thoughts. There are three steps in the perception process in this section I will discuss those steps. Step one is selection: which is defined as focusing more on one group of things than another. We do this because our brain is so overloaded with information everyday that it is forced to only focus on certain things. The second step is organization: which can be defined as putting our thoughts about things that seem to fit together, together in order to remember them better. This happens in a moment as soon as we see something our brain automatically assigns it to an area of our brain that holds similar knowledge. The third and final step is interpretation: which can be defined as determining the meaning of certain events or interactions. This step is where we give meaning to what we have...

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Perception

...Running head: ARGUMENT AND COLLABORATION Perception elskandisa University of Phoenix Perception Perception is how a person makes sense of the world around them. Individuals use stimulation and senses to make judgments about people, places and things. Each person has a different perspective of certain stimulation which gives them a sense of his/her surroundings. This explains how two individuals can witness an event, yet perceive the same event in different ways. Individuals are constantly being bombarded by stimulation of his/her environment that affects his/her physical senses. Because each individual has a filter that was shaped by his/her childhood and life experiences, they may only focus on things that are familiar, blocking out important information that would allow them to make informed decisions. Individuals perceive stimulation he/she are used to, which satisfies basic needs such as emotions, attitudes and self awareness. An individual’s perception may be flawed if they misinterpret the event, leading to perceptual errors. Each individual selectively picks up on cues that influence his/her perception of the event. Often individuals interpret or project the behavior of others, thus possibly seeing themselves in the role of the person being judged. It is often said that perception is reality. What a manager or co-worker sees or perceives to be reality is very real to him/her. Thus this can cause perceptual processes to determine behavior...

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Perception

...developed a perception of her new boss is that he might be sexist. She feels that he might be overlooking more qualified female instructors for men. Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. (Robbins & Judge, 2013) I will be discussing Miranda’s perception of her boss and the factors that have influenced her judgment. I will talk about the way she sees her boss Hank and if there might be any errors in her judgment. Finally I will discuss what I believe this young ski instructor should do. Miranda’s perception of the situation is that her boss Hank does not treat the men and women fairly at the ski resort. Miranda might be correct as all the men instructors were assigned to adults while the women taught all the children The men instructor’s would report to Hank and the women to Hank’s Japanese wife Harika, 10 years his junior, and unable to speak English with confidence. (Cohen, Fink, Gadon, Wilits,, & Josefowitz, 2013) The only supervisor’s for the ski lodge would be men and all assignments would be handled through the front desk and that no instructors were to schedule own classes. The changing room for the instructors’ turned into a men’s locker room where inappropriate conversation became the norm and included Hank, Miranda’s boss. Hank had even begun to comment on how Miranda looked. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors...

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Perception

...Perception The literal meaning of perception is ‘Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to fabricate a mental representation’. The best personal encounter I had was between my newly appointed Manager & Team Lead. We used to take daily calls with our client for gathering the requirement for a new banking project. Their followed a systematic way of approach towards gathering, analyzing, and constantly discussing on the issues at hand and finally documenting and getting a written sign off on the requirement. This process was to be completed in a span of 3 months. Around the third month, the client started pushing and rushing with more requirements and there was less time to already accommodate the existing assignments at hand and on top more was coming in. As the manager was new to the project and he also wanted to establish himself, he compromised employees excessive workload by accepting and saying ‘Yes’ to whatever the client was demanding. He missed the fact that he can’t infer or perceive even without knowing what the employees had difficulties about. And secondly all this were falling into a process where the Quality of output was being compromised. The process was falling apart, then my Team Lead stepped in and had a discussion about this with the manger and made him realize that saying ‘yes’ to all what client is saying would further aggravate the issue. Accepting the requirement now and unable to cater...

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Perception

...What typical errors do we make in person perception? How can these perceptual errors be avoided? “Perception is a dynamic process because it involves ordering and attaching meaning to ‘raw’ sensitive data” (Huczynsky and Buchanan, 2001, p.217). In other words, perception refers to the way people understand the world around them. It is a dynamic process because the information is processed through the use of the five sensatory organs and then given significance (Anon.). Therefore it is subjective in nature. Given that, it is logical to expect errors or differences in judgment as the human factor is involved. Typical errors that arouse in person perception are due to stereotyping, bias, over-analyzing, gullibility or skepticism, making hasty assumptions, and misinterpretation. The psychological condition of a person also applies to his ability to make conclusions in a sense that it dictates his emotions, thoughts and actions. In addition it would be the psychological attitude of a person that will help him judge people, situations, and the ongoing environment with more precision, eliminating perceptual errors. The process of perception comes in three stages (Thornton, 2009). The first stage refers to bringing attention to certain stimuli in an environment and selecting a specific one giving it the highest priority (Thornton, 2009). In an environment that is raging with stimuli such as light, sound, and movement a person selects the one to pay attention to and leaves the others...

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Perceptions

...Running head: SENSORY PERCEPTIONS Assignment #1 Sensory Perceptions Mary D. L. Allen Critical Thinking Dr. Anne Keyes January 23, 2013 Strayer University In this assignment, this paper will take a look at sensory data and the accuracy or inaccuracy it presents. This will include the reasons in which someone believes in the accuracy of sensory information. It will consider and explain three factors that furnish sensory data to our senses. Finally, the paper will describe the character of nature and nurture to point out how to understand and evaluate sensory data. Basically, sensory perception is defined as an individual’s view of senses sent to the brain in order to help the individual make a decision. Three reasons for believing in the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information are perception, interpretation, and knowledge (Anonymous, 2013). Perception is when someone walks in the kitchen to put down bags of groceries and sets a bag on the stove which appears to off. It is off and there would be no reason to believe the information to be inaccurate. However, the stove was recently used and the burners are still hot, which causes the grocery bag to catch on fire. The eyes are deceiving and allowed an individual to put bags of groceries on a hot stove. All this means is someone did not analyze the situation clearly and make the correct decision. It is a matter of how the individual perceived...

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Perceptions

...PERCEPTION 1. We all see the world in our own way, and interpret it differently. Several people can see the same incident and give very different accounts. 2. Senses differ from perception 3. For marketers, consumers perceptions are much more important than their knowledge of objective reality. "Reality" is an individuals perception of what has taken place. 4. What people think or believe is in many ways more important than what really is 5. Perception is defined as "how we see the world around us" our perception is based on our needs, values, expectations 6. Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organises and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world (stimulus = input to the senses). 7. Sensation = immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to simple stimuli eg. an advertisement, a brand name, a package. 8. ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD = point at which a person can detect a difference between something and nothing. It is different for each individual - adaptation = getting used to a sensation senses becoming dulled to it, because of adaptation, advertisers try to change their campaign regularly, use attention gaining techniques eg. samples, stunts etc. Packaging also is designed to stand out from the rest, to gain attention. i.e. if you sense the same thing over and over again you will become bored with it and turn off from it. 9. DIFFERENTIAL THRESHOLD = minimal difference between two stimuli...

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Perception

...Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Findings This study was conducted to primarily assess high school students’ view of the school counselor’s role. This chapter will describe the research questions, sample, instrument, setting, and data analysis employed in the study. 1. How did the participants perceive the importance of school counselor roles in terms of academic success? By the use of the data gathered from the questionnaires answered by the participants, the results perceived that the role of assisting students in special education service and encouraging them to choose challenging are important. So is the function of helping the students with any personal problems and cooperating with teachers, parents, and principal was viewed as an important responsibility to support students do well in school. While starting programs to help students excel in school was given an impression as less important. This implies that students seek supervision from their school counselor when they are having difficulty in academics. 2. How did the participants perceive the importance of school counselor roles in terms of career development? In the category of the counselor’s job in the career development of students, the data gave an outcome that bringing local business people in the school to help students learn about jobs and careers...

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Perception

...I have chosen ABORTION as my subject. Here are the views of a select few:- 1. Abortion not only kills a living being but also puts the woman’s health at risk. Abortion is fine but not after the foetus is developed. 2. It should be allowed for women under 18years of age otherwise should not be. 3. Abortion=death before life. Its a brutal attempt to kill humanity. 4. I believe that there is no child conceived that was not meant to be conceived. It is not our place as humans to "play God" and determine if a child should be born. 5. Under no circumstance do I believe in abortion. The guilt that you feel after wards regardless of how you got pregnant can do irreparable damage. 6. Abortion is a woman's right. Only she can decide. If she is mature enough to conceive, she is mature enough to make a decision. Others around her should stop meddling with an affair they have no business in. 7. If you look at abortion from a point of view that you may be destroying a living being(which is a sin). But, I still believe that accepting the pregnancy just for the sake of others is also wrong. After all its your life. 8. I agree with abortion if someone is raped, are homeless, has an addiction, is a teenager, has mental health issues . 9. According to me, it depends upon the individual. There should be a valid reason for doing it. It shouldn’t be done if one is not happy with the child’s gender. 10. It is better to have an abortion when...

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