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Psychology Chapter 2: Neuroscience & Behavior

In: Philosophy and Psychology

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Chapter 2: Neuroscience & Behavior * Neurons * Nervous system cells * Highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form * Types: * Motor- signals muscles to relax and contract * Sensory- conveys information to the brain * Interneurons- communicates information from one neuron to the next * Parts of Neurons * Dendrite- receives information from other cells * Soma (Cell Body)- contains the nucleus * Axon: carries information * Glial Cells * Another cells in the nervous system * Outnumber Neurons * Provide Nutrition * Structural Support * Aid in Neural Transmission * Remove Waste * Produce Myelin Sheath * Myelin Sheath * A white fatty covering wrapped around axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed * Damage to the Myelin related to Multiple Sclerosis * Node of Ranvier * The “naked” portion of the axon between myelin sheaths * Communication within Neurons * Action Potential- a brief electrical impulse transmitting information along the axon of a neuron * Action potential travels along axon of presynaptic neuron; triggers release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles * Axon membrane is semi-permeable * The axon membrane opens and closes ion channels that allow ions to flow into and out of the axon * Ions- electrically charged particles * Resting Potential- the state in which the neuron is prepared to activate if given enough stimulation * Neuron is polarized * -70mV * Stimulus Threshold * Minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron * Communication Between Neurons * Synapse- the point of communication between two neurons * Synaptic Gap- the tiny space between the axon terminal; where neurotransmitters cross * Presynaptic- sending of neurons * Postsynaptic- receiving of neurons

* Neurotransmitters * Acetylcholine- learning, memory, muscle contraction * Alzheimer’s disease * Dopamine- movement, thought processes, rewarding sensations * Parkinson’s Disease, Schizophrenia, Drug Addiction * Serotonin- emotional states, sleep, sensory reception * Depression * Norepinephrine- physical arousal, learning & memory, regulation of sleep * Depression, Stress * GABA- inhibition of brain activities * Anxiety Disorder * Endorphins- pain perception, positive emotion * Opiate addiction * Runner’s High * Acupuncture * Excitatory Message- increases likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate * Inhibitory Message- decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate * Drugs and Synaptic Transmission * Increases or decreases the amount of certain neurotransmitters * Blocking reuptake of the neurotransmitter * Mimic a neurotransmitter * Block a neurotransmitter by binding with its receptor site * Communication Throughout the Body (Nervous System) * Central Nervous System (CNS)- brain and spinal cord * Brain- command center * Studying the Brain * Electroencephalograph(EEG) * Recording of electrical signals * Non-invasive * Cannot show which structures of the brain do what * CAT Scans * Computerized axial tomography scans * Also called CT scans * Detect brain damage * 2-D scans * Positron Emission Tomography (PET) * Blood flow/metabolism in any part of the brain * Radioactive glucose * Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) * 3-D scans * Magnetoencephalography (MEG) * Looks at the brain’s magnetic activity * Most accurate out of all brain scans * Spinal Cord- spinal reflexes (simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord) * Cerebrospinal Fluid- cushions the brain and the spinal cord

* Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- other nerves outside the Central Nervous System * Somatic Nervous System- voluntary actions * Automatic Nervous System- involuntary functions * Sympathic Nervous System- arouses the expend energy; fight-or-flight * Parasymphathetic Nervous System- calms body to conserve energy

* The Endocrine System * System of glands located throughout the body that secrete hormones * Hormones- chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream primarily by endocrine * Parts: * Pineal Gland- produces melatonin, which helps regulate sleep-wake cycles * Pancreas-regulates blood sugar and insulin levels; involved in hunger * Thyroid- controls body metabolism rate * Adrenal Glands- produces adrenaline and norepinephrine, which cause physical arousal in response of danger, fear, anger, stress, and other strong emotions * Pituitary Glands-regulates activities of other glands; produces growth hormone * Gonads * Ovaries (Women)-estrogen, progesterone * Testes (Men)-testosterone * The Brain * A complex, integrated and dynamic system of interconnected neurons * Capable of changing in response to environmental stimulation characterized by: * Functional Plasticity- capacity to shift functions form damaged to undamaged brain areas * Structural Plasticity- capacity to change physical structure * Neurogenesis- capacity to develop new neurons through the lifespan * Brainstem * Hindbrain * Connects the brain to the spinal cord * Parts * Pons-coordinates movement on left and right side of body * Medulla- controls vital life functions * Cerebellum- coordinates movements, balance, and posture * Reticular formation- regulates attention, alertness, and sleep * Midbrain * Responsible for controlling auditory and visual sensory processes * Substania Nigra- an area in the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons * The Forebrain * Largest part of the human brain * Cerebral Cortex- wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain * Divided into two Cerebral Hemispheres (right & left)

* Lobes * Temporal Lobe: primary auditory cortex; processes auditory information * Frontal Lobe: Primary motor cortex; controls voluntary movement * Occipital Lobe: primary visual cortex; processes visual information * Parietal Lobe: somatosensory cortex; processes touch and other body information * Connected by the Corpus Callosum * Limbic System- structures beneath the cerebral cortex * Hippocampus: memories * Thalamus: processes and integrates sensory information; relays information to cerebral cortex; awareness and attention * Hypothalamus: links brain and endocrine system; hunger, thirst, sleep, sexual behavior * Amygdala: memory and emotion, especially fear and anger * Specialization in the Cerebral Hemispheres * Cortical Localization: the notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain; also called localization of function * Lateralization of Function: the notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain * Aphasia: the partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken or written language because of brain injury or damage * Brain Hemispheres * Left * Words, letters * Language, sounds * Verbal Memory * Speech; grammar rules, reading, writing, arithmetic * Right * Geometric patterns, faces, emotional expression * Nonlanguage sounds, music * Non verbal memory * Emotional tone of speech * Geometry, sense of direction, distance, mental notation of shapes * Wernicke’s Area * Karl Wernicke * Provided evidence for cortical localization and lateralization of function * Discovered another area that impacted speech * Rapid speech that was unintelligible * Roger Sperry * Split-brain research

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